spandrel (biology)
Spandrel is a term used in evolutionary biology describing a phenotypic characteristic that is considered to have developed during evolution as a side-effect of an adaptation, rather than arising from natural selection. The term developed from an analogy of causal relationships between forms found in architecture and those found in biology. The term was coined by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould and population geneticist Richard Lewontin in their influential paper "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme" (1979). They drew the analogy with spandrels in Renaissance architecture, which are curved areas of masonry above an arch, which they considered to be necessary side consequence arising from decisions concerned with the shape of the arch and the circumferential ring of the base of the dome, rather than being deliberately designed for direct utility in themselves. Properties that they singled out were the necessary number of four and their specific three-dimensional shape.
Their suggestive proposal generated a large literature of critique, which Gould characterised (Gould 1997) as being grounded in two ways. First, a terminological claim was offered that the "spandrels" of Basilica di San Marco were not spandrels at all, but rather were pendentives. Gould (1997) responded, "The term spandrel may be extended from its particular architectural use for two-dimensional byproducts to the generality of 'spaces left over', a definition that properly includes the San Marco pendentives." Other critics, such as Daniel Dennett, further claimed that these pendentives are not merely architectural by-products as Gould and Lewontin supposed. Dennett argues that alternatives to pendentives, such as corbels or squinches would have served equally well from an architectural standpoint, but pendentives were deliberately selected due to their aesthetic value. Critics argue that Lewontin and Gould's oversight in this regard illustrates their underestimation of the pervasiveness of adaptations found in nature.
Gould responded that critics ignore that later selective value is a separate issue from origination as necessary consequences of structure; he summarised his use of the term 'spandrel' in 1997: "Evolutionary biology needs such an explicit term for features arising as byproducts, rather than adaptations, whatever their subsequent exaptive utility.... Causes of historical origin must always be separated from current utilities; their conflation has seriously hampered the evolutionary analysis of form in the history of life." (Gould 1997:Abstract).
The linguist Noam Chomsky has argued that the 'language faculty' that plays a central role in his theory of Universal Grammar may have evolved as a spandrel: in this view, human language originated as a by-product of the general recursion faculty of the human mind, which would have evolved without any evolutionary 'reasons'.
See also
 Exaptation
Atavism
Vestigiality
References
Stephen Jay Gould and Richard C. Lewontin. "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme" Proc. Roy. Soc. London B 205 (1979) pp. 581-598
Stephen Jay Gould (1997). "The exaptive excellence of spandrels as a term and prototype" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 94: 10750-10755.
Stephen Jay Gould (2002). The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Phillip Stevens Thurtle. "The G Files: Linking 'The Selfish Gene' And 'The Thinking Reed'"
Daniel Dennett (1995). Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-82471-X.
Marc D. Hauser, Noam Chomsky, and W. Tecumseh Fitch (2002). "The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?" Science 298:1569-1579.
Robert Mark (1996). "Architecture and Evolution" American Scientist (July-August): 383-389.
|
|
|
|
This section is sponsored by:
Lowest Priced Computers
Get the lowest prices on laptops, desktops and computer accessories
www.Geeks.com
Laptops - Save Money and Time
Complete Laptop at Cheap Price! Compare &Deal Here.
Laptop-s.cn
HP Laptops & Notebooks
Find great deals on HP laptops & notebooks along with accessories for your computer.
www.shopping.hp.com
Latest Computers
Find Specials High Performance Desktop PCs And Computers Here! Check Out Now.
Portable-LaptopComputers.com
Complete Computer &Accessories
Need computer &accessories in new tech? Find here at affordable Price.
Computer-Laptop.net
Get a Mac Computer
Find the Mac computer that fits your needs from the Macbook to the iMac
store.apple.com
Laptop & Desktop Computers
Find great deals & low prices brand name laptops and desktop computers.
www.buy.com
Get a Free Laptop Now
100% Free Brand Name Laptop. Hurry - supplies are limited.
www.GetFreeLaptopsNow.com
|
