shinbutsu bunri
The term indicates the forbidding in Japan of the fusion of Shinto and Buddhism, and the effort to create a clear division between Shinto and Buddhism on one side, and Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines on the other. By the end of Edo period, Shinto and Buddhism were intimately connected in what was called shinbutsu shugo , up to the point that even the same buildings were used as both Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples.
The tendency to try to separate the two religions can be seen already during the early modern era as a reaction to the spreading of Buddhism,["Shinbutsu Bunri" (Encyclopedia of Shinto).] but the term usually indicates the anti-Buddhist movement that, from the middle of the Edo period onwards, accompanied Confucianism, the study of ancient Japanese literature and culture (or kokugaku), and Shinto nationalism,[Stone "Review of Of Heretics and Martyrs in Meiji Japan."] all movements with reasons to oppose Buddhism. In a narrower sense, shinbutsu bunri is the policy of separation of Shinto and Buddhism pursued by the new Meiji government with the Shinto and Buddhism Separation Order (? ). This last event is of particular historical importance, partly because it triggered the haibutsu kishaku, a violent anti-Buddhist movement which in the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate and during the Meiji Restoration caused the forcible closure of thousands of temples, the confiscation of their land, the forced return to lay life of monks, and the destruction of books, statues and other Buddhist property.["Haibutsukishaku" (Encyclopedia of Shinto).][ Even Buddhist bronze bells were melted to make cannons.]
The shinbutsu bunri in the early modern age
The shinbutsu bunri, and the haibutsu kishaku it tended to cause, in the early modern age were a phenomenon encountered mostly in domains where anti-Buddhist Confucianism was strong, as the Okayama, Mito, and Yodo Domains. For example, in the 1660's Tokugawa Mitsukuni in Mito forcibly closed a thousand temples and ordered the building of one shrine per village.[Bocking, "Shinbutsu Bunri"]
The shinbutsu bunri of the Meiji era
The Restoration government tried to clarify the distinction between Buddhism and Shinto with a series of edicts. This was done in several stages.
A first order issued by the Jingijimuka on April 1868 ordered the defrocking of shaso and betto (shrine monks performing Buddhist rites at Shinto shrines).["The Urakami Incidents and the Struggle for Religious Toleration in Early Meiji Japan, page 175"]
A few days later, the Daijokan banned the application of Buddhist terminology to Japanese kami and the veneration of Buddhist statues in shrines.
The third stage consisted of the prohibition to apply the Buddhist term Daibosatsu to Shinto's deity Hachiman at Iwashimizu and Usa Hachiman shrines.
In the fourth and final stage, all the defrocked betto and shaso were told to become "shrine priests" (or kannushi) and return to their shrines.[ Also, monks of the Nichiren sect were told not to refer to some deities as kami.]
The Meiji era's shinbutsu bunri policy was meant as a first step towards making Shinto the official state religion; however, the idea failed because of widespread opposition and was scrapped. In 1873 the government admitted that the effort to elevate Shinto above Buddhism had failed.
The government was however successful in creating the false impression that Shinto and Buddhism in Japan are completely different and independent. In dealing with some Buddhist temples in Japan dedicated to the cult of Shinto kami Inari, Shinto scholar Karen Smyers comments:
The surprise of many of my informants regarding the existence of Buddhist Inari temples shows the success of the government's attempt to create separate conceptual categories regarding sites and certain identities, although practice remains multiple and nonexclusive.[Smyers, pag. 119]
In any case, in less than two decades Buddhism had not only had recovered, but had modernized itself, becoming once more a significant force.[ This led to the coexistence of Shinto and Buddhism as we see it today.]
Consequences of the Separation Policy
Although the government's edicts didn't explicitly order the closing of temples, the destruction of Buddhist property and the defrocking of Buddhist priests and nuns, they were often interpreted as implying it, and the haibutsu kishaku movement soon spread to the entire country with tragic consequences.[ A substantial part of the population that had felt financially exploited by the danka system (? participated in the movement. This system, made mandatory by the Tokugawa in order to halt the spread of Christianity, obliged all families to be affiliated to and support a Buddhist temple.][Watt "Review of Death and Social Order in Tokugawa Japan."]
The shinbutsu bunri policy was itself the direct cause of serious damage to important cultural properties. Because mixing the two religions was now forbidden, shrines and temples had to give away some of their treasures, thus damaging the integrity of their cultural heritage and decreasing the historical and economic value of their properties.[. ] For example, Kamakura's Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gu's giant ] (the two wooden wardens usually found at the sides of a temple's entrance), being objects of Buddhist worship and therefore illegal where they were, were sold to Jufuku-ji, where they still are.[Iso "Kamakura. Fact and Legend, page 172] The shrine also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its tower, its , and its .[ Many Buddhist temples were simply closed, like Zenko-ji, to which the now-independent Meigetsu-in used to belong.]
Another consequence of the policy was the creation of so-called "invented traditions"[Smyers (1999)]. To avoid the destruction of material illegal under the new rules, Shinto and Buddhist priests invented traditions, genealogies and other information that justified its presence[Smyers (1999)]. Later, awareness of their origin was often lost.
Causes of the shinbutsu bunri
Anti-Buddhist feelings had been building up during the last two centuries of the Tokugawa period, and several groups had reasons to oppose Buddhism. The shinbutsu bunri was seen as a way to weaken Buddhism and lessen its immense economic and social power. At the same time, it was supposed to give Shinto and its cult of the Emperor time to grow, while prodding the Japanese's national pride. The anti-Buddhist movement was lead by Confucian, Neo-Confucian, Shinto, and Kokugaku scholars like Toju Nakae, Kumazawa Banzan, Yamaga Soko, Ito Jinsai, Ogyu Sorai, Norinaga Motoori, and Hirata Atsutane.[ Because motives were different and often in contrast, there was no unity. In fact, while there were modernizers, criticism often stemmed from a feudalistic mentality or from an emotional and simplistic nationalism.]
The Tokugawa and the danka system
The relationship between Buddhism and the Tokugawa state was complex. Although the shogunate's official philosophy was lay Neo-Confucianism,[ Buddhism had become an integral part of the state as a consequence of the Tokugawas' anti-Christian policy. To stop the propagation of Christianity, they had introduced the danka system, which obliged families to affiliate themselves with a Buddhist temple,][ and in return this would certify that they were not Christian. Without this certification a normal life in Tokugawa Japan was impossible.][ Families had by law several obligations towards Buddhist institutions, among them monetary donations to their temple of affiliation.][ Because there were some 100,000 temples in a country of 30 million people, on average 300 persons had to support a temple, so the burden was considerable.][Hur "The Rise of Funerary Buddhism in Tokugawa Japan."] This caused widespread discontent and ultimately lead to a backlash. The fact that Buddhism was so deeply involved with the shoguns also meant that it had become one of its symbols and an enemy of all those who wanted the shogunate's fall. All these parties wanted to see Buddhism cut down to size, and the strengthening of Shinto was considered a good way to achieve the goal.
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucian thought in Japan emphasized the use of reason and was essentially humanistic; it therefore rejected Buddhism as superstition.[Loftus "Confucianism in the Edo (Tokugawa) Period."] It also emphasized loyalty to the emperor and was fiercely xenophobic[ Confucian anti-Buddhism was the cause for example of haibutsu kishaku episodes in the Aizu, Okayama and Mito domains during the early modern era.][ Some of the leaders of the Neo-Confucian movement were former Buddhist priests. Fujiwara Seika, Hayashi Razan, and Yamazaki Ansai were all former Rinzai priests.][Tamura "The Birth of the Japanese nation," p.131-32.]
Kokugaku
Kokugaku was a school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period. Kokugaku scholars tended to relativize the study of Chinese and Buddhist texts and favored philological research into the early Japanese classics. Kokugaku scholars criticized the repressive moralizing of Confucian thinkers, and tried to re-establish Japanese culture before the influx of foreign modes of thought and behavior. One of its most influential exponents was scholar Norinaga Motoori.
In the mid-nineteenth century, kokugaku students became involved in the fight against the shogunate and in favor of the emperor.[The Kokugaku (Native Studies) School.] They claimed that ancient Japanese documents said the emperor alone was divinely authorized to rule Japan.
Modernizers
Modernizers stressed the unscientific character of Buddhism and the drain it was for the national economy.
References
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