Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution
The Twenty-second Amendment (Amendment XXII) of the United States Constitution sets a term limit for the President of the United States. The United States Congress passed the amendment on March 21, 1947.[Charters of Freedom - The Declaration of Independence, The Constitution, The Bill of Rights] It was ratified by the requisite number of states on February 27, 1951.
Franklin D. Roosevelt, who served from 1933 to 1945, is the only president elected to more than two terms. Though under the 22nd amendment it would be possible for a president to serve up to ten years – having succeeded to the presidency of his predecessor with two years or less remaining in that term – no president besides Roosevelt has ever served more than eight years exactly.[List of United States Presidents by time in office]
History
Historians point to George Washington's decision not to seek a third term as evidence that the Founders saw a two-term limit as convention and a bulwark against a monarchy; his Farewell Address, however, suggests that it was because of his age that he did not seek reelection. Thomas Jefferson also contributed to the convention of a two-term limit; in 1807 he wrote, "if some termination to the services of the chief Magistrate be not fixed by the Constitution, or supplied by practice, his office, nominally four years, will in fact become for life."[Thomas Jefferson: Reply to the Legislature of Vermont, 1807. ME 16:293] Jefferson’s immediate successors, James Madison and James Monroe, also adhered to the two-term principle.
Prior to Franklin D. Roosevelt, few Presidents attempted to serve for more than two terms. Ulysses S. Grant sought a third term in 1880 after serving from 1869 to 1877, but narrowly lost his party's nomination. Theodore Roosevelt succeeded to the presidency upon William McKinley's assassination and was elected in 1904 to a full term himself, serving from 1901 to 1909. Teddy sought to be elected to a (non-consecutive) third term in 1912 but lost to Woodrow Wilson. In 1940, FDR became the first person to be elected more than twice; supporters cited the war in Europe as a reason for breaking with precedent. In the 1944 election, during World War II, he won a fourth term, but died in office the following year.
After Roosevelt's death, the newly Republican 80th United States Congress desired to establish a firm constitutional provision barring presidents from being elected more than twice. The rationale was a concern that without limits, the presidential position could become too similar to that of a benevolent dictator lasting not just four years but a lifetime, and that the position could become too powerful and upset the separation of powers. Hence, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted.
Proposal and ratification
Congress proposed the Twenty-second Amendment on March 21, 1947.
 Maine (March 31, 1947)
Michigan (March 31, 1947)
Iowa (April 1, 1947)
Kansas (April 1, 1947)
New Hampshire (April 1, 1947)
Delaware (April 2, 1947)
Illinois (April 3, 1947)
Oregon (April 3, 1947)
Colorado (April 12, 1947)
California (April 15, 1947)
New Jersey (April 15, 1947)
Vermont (April 15, 1947)
Ohio (April 16, 1947)
Wisconsin (April 16, 1947)
Pennsylvania (April 29, 1947)
Connecticut (May 21, 1947)
Missouri (May 22, 1947)
Nebraska (May 23, 1947)
Virginia (January 28, 1948)
Mississippi (February 12, 1948)
New York (March 9, 1948)
South Dakota (January 21, 1949)
North Dakota (February 25, 1949)
Louisiana (May 17, 1950)
Montana (January 25, 1951)
Indiana (January 29, 1951)
Idaho (January 30, 1951)
New Mexico (February 12, 1951)
Wyoming (February 12, 1951)
Arkansas (February 15, 1951)
Georgia (February 17, 1951)
Tennessee (February 20, 1951)
Texas (February 22, 1951)
Nevada (February 26, 1951)
Utah (February 26, 1951)
Minnesota (February 27, 1951)
Ratification was completed on February 27, 1951. The amendment was subsequently ratified by the following states:
North Carolina (February 28, 1951)
South Carolina (March 13, 1951)
Maryland (March 14, 1951)
Florida (April 16, 1951)
Alabama (May 4, 1951)
The amendment was rejected by the following states:
Oklahoma (June 1947)
Massachusetts (June 9, 1949)
Criticism of the amendment
Dwight D. Eisenhower expressed his strong opposition to term limits, saying, "The United States ought to be able to choose for its President anybody it wants, regardless of the number of terms he has served."[Sherman Adams, "First Hand Report," 1961, p. 296) ("Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower", 1956, p. 862) ] Ronald Reagan publicly supported repealing the amendment. Bill Clinton stated his support for repealing the amendment and replacing it with one that prohibits people from serving more than two consecutive terms, but permitting them to seek election after an intervening term.[Bill Clinton causes quite a stir with talk of “modifying” 22nd Amendment - The Carpetbagger Report]
Some have criticized the Amendment as a potential erosion of a second-term president's power and influence, as the president becomes a political lame duck. The term was coined by 18th century English stockbrokers to mean someone who is bankrupt, but later came to mean anyone who has been made weak and ineffective. It now most often applies to politicians who are soon to leave office. This effect was referred to by President George W. Bush when, after winning his second term, he told the media "I'm going to come out strong after my swearing-in. We have to move quickly, because after that I'll be quacking like a duck."[The New York Times > Magazine > In the Magazine: Faith, Certainty and the Presidency of George W. Bush]
Interaction with the Twelfth Amendment
Some have questioned the interpretation of the Twenty-second Amendment as it relates to the Twelfth Amendment, ratified in 1804, which provides that "no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States."
While it is clear that under the Twelfth Amendment the original constitutional qualifications of age, citizenship, and residency apply to both the President and Vice President, it is unclear if a two-term President could later be elected—or appointed—Vice President. Some argue
Others contend that while a two-term President is ineligible to be elected or appointed to the office of Vice President, he or she could succeed from a lower position in the line of succession which he or she is not excluded from holding.
Still others contend
Individuals restricted by the amendment
The Amendment prohibits any person who has succeeded to the Presidency and served as President or as Acting President for more than two years of their predecessor's unexpired term from being elected more than once. Since the Amendment's ratification, the only President who could have served more than two terms under this circumstance was Lyndon B. Johnson. He became President in 1963 when John F. Kennedy was assassinated, served only 14 months of Kennedy's term, and was elected President in 1964. Had Johnson stayed in the race in 1968 and won, he would have served nine years and two months in all when he reached the end of the new term. The amendment specifically excluded the sitting president (Harry S. Truman) at the time it was proposed by Congress. Truman, who had served most of FDR's unexpired fourth term and who had been elected to a full term in 1948, began a campaign for a third term in 1952, but quit after a poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. The four Presidents who have served since the Amendment's ratification and became ineligible for election to a third term are Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush.
Gerald Ford became president on August 9, 1974 and was in office for more than two years of the unexpired term of Richard Nixon. Had Ford won a full term in 1976 (he narrowly lost to Jimmy Carter), he would have been barred from being elected again despite only being elected once. No Vice President was elected to serve two full terms as President after assuming the Presidency after the death or resignation of a President. Theodore Roosevelt unsuccessfully sought a second term four years after serving a full term after succeeding William McKinley.
Current restrictions and limitations
As of 2008, the following former and current living Presidents are restricted by this amendment:
Bill Clinton and George W. Bush are not eligible to be elected President again. Each has already been elected twice.
As of 2008, the following former Presidents are permitted to be elected for one more term:
Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush may each serve one more term as President, each having been elected President only once.
References
Constitution of the United States.
Bruce G. Peabody and Scott E. Gant (1997). “The Twice and Future President: Constitutional Interstices and the Twenty-Second Amendment,” Minnesota Law Review 83, no. 3. February 1999: 565-635.
External links
National Archives: Twenty second Amendment
H.J.RES.8 - The latest bill introduced in Congress proposing to repeal the Twenty second Amendment. There have been many similar proposals introduced in previous Congresses, none of which has been acted on. This proposal remains in committee.
CRS Annotated Constitution: Twenty second Amendment
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