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Pinyin

Pinyin, more formally Hanyu Pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin romanization system in use. Hanyu means the Chinese language, and pinyin means "spell sound", or the spelling of the sound. Developed by a government committee in the People's Republic of China in the 1950s, Pinyin was adopted as the international standard in 1979. It is now used to teach Chinese schoolchildren and foreign learners the standard pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese, to spell Chinese names in foreign publications and to enter Chinese characters on computers.

History

In 1954, the Ministry of Education of the PRC assigned a Committee (Committee for the Reform of the Chinese Written Language) to reform the written language. This committee developed Hanyu Pinyin based upon existing systems of that time (Gwoyeu Romatzyh of 1928, Latinxua Sin Wenz of 1931, it uses the diacritic markings from Zhuyin)Zou Minglang & Sun Hongkai, Language Policy In The People's Republic Of China: Theory And Practice Since 1949, 2004, p.23. The main force behind pinyin was Zhou Youguang (born 1905, turning 103 in 2008 in good health).Film clip about Zhou Youguang, the "Father of pinyin". Accompanying article to the Guardian video of 20 February 2008. Zhou Youguang was working in a New York bank when he decided to return to China to help rebuild the country after the war. He became an economics professor in Shanghai. The government assigned him to help the development of a new romanisation system. The switch to language and writing largely saved him from the wrath of the Cultural Revolution of Mao Zedong.

A first draft was published on February 12 1956. The first edition of Hanyu Pinyin was approved and adopted at the Fifth Session of the 1st National People's Congress on February 11 1958. It was then introduced to primary schools as a way to teach Standard Mandarin pronunciation, and used to improve the literacy rate among adults. In 2001, the Chinese Government issued the National Common Language Law, providing a legal basis for applying pinyin.'Hanyu Pinyin system turns 50', Straits Times February 11, 2008

The correspondence between letter and sound does not follow any single other language, but does not depart any more from the norms of the Latin alphabet than many European languages. For example, the aspiration distinction between b, d, g and p, t, k is similar to that of English, but not to that of French. Z and c also have that distinction; however, they are pronounced as

, as in languages such as German, Italian, and Polish, which do not have that distinction. From s, z, c come the digraphs sh, zh, ch by analogy with English sh, ch; although this introduces the novel combination zh, it is internally consistent in how the two series are related, and represents the fact that many Chinese pronounce sh, zh, ch as s, z, c. In the x, j, q series, x rather resembles its pronunciation in Catalan, though q is more novel. Pinyin vowels are pronounced similarly to vowels in Romance languages. More information on the pronunciation of all pinyin letters in terms of English approximations is given further below.

The pronunciation of Chinese is generally given in terms of initials and finals, which represent the segmental phonemic portion of the language. Initials are initial consonants, while finals are all possible combinations of medials (semivowels coming before the vowel), the nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant).

For a complete table of all pinyin syllables, see pinyin table.

Usage

Hanyu Pinyin superseded older romanization systems such as Wade-Giles (1859; modified 1892) and Chinese Postal Map Romanization, and replaced Zhuyin as the method of Chinese phonetic instruction in mainland China. Hanyu Pinyin was adopted in 1979 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as the standard romanization for modern Chinese (ISO-7098:1991). It has also been accepted by the Government of Singapore, the Library of Congress, the American Library Association, and many other international institutions. It has also become a useful tool for entering Chinese language text into computers.

The spelling of Chinese geographical or personal names in pinyin has become a standard or most common way to transcribe them in English.

Chinese speaking Standard Mandarin at home use pinyin to help children associate characters with spoken words which they already know; however, for the many Chinese who do not use Standard Mandarin at home, pinyin is used to teach them the Standard Mandarin pronunciation of words when they learn them in elementary school.

Pinyin has become a tool for many foreigners to learn the Mandarin pronunciation, it is used to explain the grammar and spoken Mandarin together with hanzi. Like zhuyin fuhao it is used as a phonetic guide in books for children but also dialect speakers and foreign learners. Books containing both Chinese characters and pinyin are popular with foreign learners of Chinese, pinyin's role in teaching pronunciation to foreigners and children is similar to furigana-based books (with hiragana letters written above or next to kanji) in Japanese or fully vocalised texts in Arabic ("vocalised Arabic") but as mentioned above, pinyin is also the main romanisation method.

Initials and Finals

Unlike in European languages, initials () and finals (, or rhyming sounds) - and not consonants and vowels - are the fundamental elements in Pinyin (and most other phonetic systems used to describe the Han language). Nearly each Chinese syllable can be spelled with exactly one initial followed by one final, except in the special syllable 'er' and when a trailing 'r' is considered part of a syllable (see below). The latter case, though a common practice in some sub-dialects, is rarely used in official publications.Exception can be found in 'Harbin' (), a name that came from a then foreign/minority language.

Even though most initials contain a consonant, finals are not simple vowels,In this article, there are still references to "vowels" when the actual subject is "finals". This should be carefully clarified. especially in compound finals (), i.e., when one "final" is placed in front of another one. For example,

and

are pronounced with such tight openings that some native Chinese speakers (especially when singing or on stage) pronounce yi (, clothes, officially pronounced as ) as , wéi (, to enclose, officially as ) as or . The concepts of consonants and vowels are not incorporated in Pinyin or its predecessors, despite the fact that the Roman alphabets are used in Pinyin. In the entire Pinyin system, there is not a list of consonants, nor a list of vowels.?

Initials

In each cell below, the first line indicates the , the second indicates pinyin.

1 may phonetically be (a voiced retroflex fricative). This pronunciation varies among different speakers, and is not two different phonemes.

2 the letter "w" may be considered as an initial or a final, and may be pronounced as or

3 the letter "y" may be considered as an initial or a final, and may be pronounced as or

Note: Letters "y" and "w" are not included in table of initials in the official Pinyin system. They are used as spelling aids in place of "i", "u" and "ü" when there are no other initials, and carry the pronunciations of the corresponding finals. Consonants and are not officially used for these letters; they are absent from standard Chinese.

Conventional order (excluding w and y), derived from the Zhuyin system, is:

Finals

In each cell below, the first line indicates IPA, the second indicates pinyin for a standalone (no-initial) form, and the third indicates pinyin for a combination with an initial. Other than finals modified by an -r, which are omitted, the following is an exhaustive table of all possible finals. 1

The only syllable-final consonants in standard Mandarin are -n and -ng, and -r which is attached as a grammatical suffix. Chinese syllables ending with any other consonant is either from a non-Mandarin language (southern Chinese languages such as Cantonese, or minority languages of China), or it indicates the use of a non-pinyin Romanization system (where final consonants may be used to indicate tones).

1 /?r/ (?,?, etc.) is written as er. For other finals formed by the suffix -r, pinyin does not use special orthography; one simply appends -r to the final that it is added to, without regard for any sound changes that may take place along the way. For information on sound changes related to final -r, please see Standard Mandarin.

2 "ü" is written as "u" after j, q, x, or y.

3 "uo" is written as "o" after b, p, m, or f.

4 It is pronounced when it follows an initial, and pinyin reflects this difference.

In addition, ê is used to represent certain interjections.

Rules given in terms of English pronunciation

All rules given here in terms of English pronunciation are approximate, as several of these sounds do not correspond directly to sounds in English.

Pronunciation of finals

The following is an exhaustive list of all finals in Standard Mandarin. Those ending with a final -r are listed at the end.

To find a given final:

Remove the initial consonant. For zh-, ch-, sh-, both letters should be removed, they are single consonants spelt with two letters.

Although y- and w- are consonants nevertheless they may be considered as part of finals and do not remove those.

#Syllables beginning with y- and w- may be considered as standalone forms of finals "i, u, ü" and finals beginning with "i-, u-, ü-".

If a syllable begins with j-, q-, x-, or y-, and the final is -u or starts with -u-, then change -u or -u- to -ü or -ü-.

Letters

Pinyin differs from other romanizations in several aspects, such as the following:

Syllables starting with u are written as w in place of u (e.g. ueng is written as weng). Standalone u is written as wu.

Syllables starting with i are written as y in place of i (e.g. iou is written as you). Standalone i is written as yi.

Syllables starting with ü are written as yu in place of ü (e.g. üe is written as yue).

ü is written as u when there is no ambiguity (such as ju, qu, and xu), but written as ü when there are corresponding u syllables (such as lü and nü). In such situations where there are corresponding u syllables, it is often replaced with v on a computer, making it easier to type on a standard keyboard.

When preceded by a consonant, iou, uei, and uen are simplified as iu, ui, and un (which do not represent the actual pronunciation).

As in zhùyin, what are actually pronounced as buo, puo, muo, and fuo are given a separate representation: bo, po, mo, and fo.

The apostrophe (') is often used before a, o, and e to separate syllables in a word where ambiguity could arise, especially when omitting tone marks, e.g., pi'ao () vs. piao , and Xi'an vs. xian .

Eh alone is written as ê; elsewhere as e. Schwa is always written as e.

zh, ch, and sh can be abbreviated as?, c, and s (z, c, s with a circumflex). However, the shorthands are rarely used due to difficulty of entering them on computers.

ng has the uncommon shorthand of ?.

The letter v is unused (except in spelling foreign languages, languages of minority nationalities, and some dialects?), despite a conscious effort to distribute letters more evenly than in Western languages.

Most of the above are used to avoid ambiguity when writing words of more than one syllable in pinyin. For example uenian is written as wenyan because it is not clear which syllables make up uenian; uen-ian, uen-i-an and u-en-i-an are all possible combinations whereas wenyan is unambiguous because we, nya, etc. do not exist in pinyin. A summary of possible pinyin syllables (not including tones), can be reviewed at: pinyin table

Capitalization and word formation

Although Chinese characters represent single syllables, Mandarin Chinese is a polysyllabic language. Spacing in pinyin is based on whole words, not single syllables. However, there are often ambiguities in partitioning a word. Orthographic rules were put into effect in 1988 by the National Educational Commission (?, pinyin: Guójia Jiàoyù Weiyuánhuì ) and the National Language Commission (?, pinyin: Guójia Yuyán Wénzì Gongzuò Weiyuánhuì).

General
#Single meaning: Words with a single meaning, which are usually set up of two characters (sometimes one, seldom three), are written together and not capitalized: rén (, person); péngyou (, friend), qiaokèlì (, chocolate)
#Combined meaning (2 characters): Same goes for words combined of two words to one meaning: haifeng (, sea breeze); wèndá (, Q&A), quánguó (, 'pan-national')
#Combined meaning (4 or more characters): Words with four or more characters having one meaning are split up with their original meaning if possible: wúfèng gangguan (, seamless steel-tube); huánjìng baohù guihuà (, environmental protection planning)
Duplicated words
#AA: Duplicated characters (AA) are written together: rénrén (, everybody), kànkàn (, to have a look), niánnián (, every year)
#ABAB: two characters duplicated (ABAB) are written separated: yánjiu yánjiu (, to study, to research), xuebái xuebái (, snow-white)
#AABB: A hyphen is used with the schema AABB: láilái-wangwang (, go back and forth), qianqian-wànwàn (, numerous)
Nouns and names (míngcí): Nouns are written in one: zhuozi (, table), mùtou (, wood)
#Even if accompanied by a prefix and suffix: fùbùzhang (, vice minister), chéngwùyuán (, conductor), háizimen (, children)
#Words of position are separated: mén wài (outdoor), hé li (in the river), huoche shàngmian (on the train), Huáng Hé yinán (south of the Yellow River)
##Exceptions are words traditionally connected: tianshang (in the sky), dìxia (on the ground), kongzhong (in the air), haiwài (overseas)
#Surnames are separated from the given name: Li Huá, Zhang San. If the given name consists of two syllables, it should be written as one: Wáng Jiàngguó.
#Titles following the name are separated and are not capitalized: Wáng bùzhang (minister Wang), Li xiansheng (Mr. Li), Tián zhurèn (director Tian), Zhào tóngzhì (comrade Zhao).
#The forms of addressing people with Lao, Xiao, Dà and A are capitalized: Xiao Liú ( Ms. Liu), Dà Li ( Mr. Li), A San (Ah San), Lao Qián ( Mr. Qian), Lao Wú ( Ms. Wu)
##Exceptions are: Kongzi (Master Confucius), Baogong (Judge Bao), Xishi (a historical person), Mèngchángjun (a historical person)
#Geographical names of China: Beijing Shì (City of Beijing), Hébei Sheng (Province of Hebei), Yalù Jiang (Yalu River), Tài Shan (Mt. Taishan), Dòngtíng Hú (Lake Donting), Táiwan Haixiá (Taiwan strait)
#Non-Chinese names translated back from Chinese will be written by their original writing: Marx, Einstein, London, Tokyo
Verbs (dòngcí): Verbs and their suffixes (-zhe, -le and -guo) are written as one: kànzhe/kànle/kànguo (to see/saw/seen), jìngxíngzhe (to implement). Le as it appears in the end of a sentence is separated though: Huoche dào le (The train arrived).
#Verbs and their objects are separated: kàn xìn (read a letter), chi yú (eat fish), kai wánxiào (to be kidding).
#If verbs and their complements are each monosyllabic, they are written together, if not, separated: gaohuài ("to make broken"), dasi (hit to death), huàwéi ("to become damp"), zhengli hao (to straighten out), gaixie wéi (rewrite a screenplay)
Adjectives (xíngróngcí): A monosyllabic adjective and its reduplication are written as one: mengmengliàng (dim), liàngtangtang (shining bright)
#Complements of size or degree (as xie, yixie, dianr, yidianr) are written separated: dà xie (a little bigger), kuài yidianr (a bit faster)
Pronouns (dàicí)
#The plural suffix -men directly follows up: women (we), tamen (they)
#The demonstrative pronoun zhè (this), nà (that) and the question pronoun na (which) are separated: zhè rén (this person), nà cì huìyì (that meeting), na zhang bàozhi (which newspaper)
##Exceptions are: nàli (there), zhèbian (over here), zhège (this piece), zhème (so), zhèmeyàng (that way)... and similar ones.
Numerals and measure words (shùcí hé liàngcí)

#Words like gè/mei (every, each), mou (any), ben (that), gai (that), wo (mine, our), are separated from the measure words following them: gè guó (every nation), gè gè (everyone), mei nián (every year), mou gongchang (a certain factory), wo xiào (our school).

Tones

The pinyin system also uses diacritics for the four tones of Mandarin, usually above a non-medial vowel. Many books printed in China mix fonts, with vowels and tone marks rendered in a different font than the surrounding text, tending to give such pinyin texts a typographically ungainly appearance. This style, most likely rooted in early technical limitations, has led many to believe that pinyin's rules call for this practice and also for the use of "" (with no curl over the top) rather than the standard style of the letter "" found in most fonts. The official rules of Hanyu Pinyin, however, specify no such practice. Note that tone marks can also appear on consonants in certain vowelless exclamations.

The first tone (Flat or High Level Tone) is represented by a macron (¯) added to the pinyin vowel:

The second tone (Rising or High-Rising Tone) is denoted by an acute accent (´):

The third tone (Falling-Rising or Low Tone) is marked by a caron/hácek . It is not the rounded breve , though a breve is sometimes substituted due to font limitations.

The fourth tone (Falling or High-Falling Tone) is represented by a grave accent (`):

The fifth or neutral tone (Neutral Tone) is represented by a normal vowel without any accent mark:

(In some cases, this is also written with a dot before the syllable; for example, ·ma.)

These tone marks normally are only used in Mandarin textbooks or in foreign learning texts, but they are essential for correct pronunciation of Mandarin syllables, as exemplified by the following classic example of five characters whose pronunciations differ only in their tones:

The words are "mother", "hemp", "horse", "scold" and a question particle, respectively.

Numerals in place of tone marks

Since before the advent of computers, many fonts did not contain vowels with macron or caron diacritics, a common convention for tone is to add a tone number at the end of individual syllables. For example, tóng is written tong2.
The number used for each tone is as the order listed above (except the neutral tone, which is either not numbered or numbered zero, as in ma0?/? (an interrogative marker).

Rules for placing the tone mark"Vowels" in this section actually refers to "finals"; specifically, simple finals (). The word "vowel" is not used in official Chinese publications.

The rules for determining on which vowel the tone mark appears are as follows:

If there is more than one vowel and the first vowel is i, u, or ü, then the tone mark appears on the last vowel.pinyin tone mark placement , Chinese Wikipedia

In all other cases, the tone mark appears on the vowels in this order: a, o, e.

(y and w are not considered vowels for these rules.)

The reasoning behind these rules is in the case of diphthongs and triphthongs, i, u, and ü (and their orthographic equivalents y and w when there is no initial consonant) are considered medial glides rather than part of the syllable nucleus in Chinese phonology. The rules ensure that the tone mark always appears on the nucleus of a syllable.

Another algorithm for determining the vowel on which the tone mark appears is as follows:

First, look for an "a" or an "e". If either vowel appears, it takes the tone mark. There are no possible pinyin syllables that contain both an "a" and an "e".

If there is no "a" or "e", look for an "ou". If "ou" appears, then the "o" takes the tone mark.

If none of the above cases hold, then the last vowel in the syllable takes the tone mark.

The character "ü"

An umlaut is placed over the letter u when it occurs after the initials l and n in order to represent the sound

. This is necessary in order to distinguish the front high rounded vowel in lü (e.g.?/? donkey) from the back high rounded vowel in lu (e.g.?/? oven). Tonal markers are added on top of the umlaut, as in lu.

However, the ü is not used in other contexts where it represents a front high rounded vowel, namely after the letters j, q, x and y. For example, the sound of the word?/? (fish) is transcribed in pinyin simply as yú, not as yu. This practice is opposed to Wade-Giles, which always uses ü, and Tongyong Pinyin, which always uses yu. Whereas Wade-Giles needs to use the umlaut to distinguish between chü (pinyin ju) and chu (pinyin zhu), this ambiguity cannot arise with pinyin, so the more convenient form ju is used instead of jü. Genuine ambiguities only happen with nu/nü and lu/lü, which are then distinguished by an umlaut diacritic.

Many fonts or output methods do not support an umlaut for ü or cannot place tone marks on top of ü. Likewise, using ü in input methods is difficult because it is not present as a simple key on many keyboard layouts. For these reasons v is sometimes used instead by convention. Occasionally, uu (double u), u: (u followed by a colon) or U (capital u) is used in its place.

Pinyin in Taiwan

Taiwan adopted Tongyong Pinyin on the national level in October 2002. Tongyong Pinyin is a modified version of Hanyu Pinyin. The adoption of Tongyong Pinyin has also resulted in political controversy. Much of the controversy centered on issues of national identity, with proponents of Chinese reunification favoring the Hanyu Pinyin system which is used in the People's Republic of China, and proponents of Taiwanese independence favoring the use of Tongyong Pinyin.

Localities with governments controlled by the Kuomintang, most notably Taipei City, have overridden the 2002 administrative order and converted to Hanyu Pinyin (although with a slightly different capitalization convention than the Mainland). As a result, the use of romanization on signage in Taiwan is inconsistent, with many places using Tongyong Pinyin but some using Hanyu Pinyin, and still others not yet having had the resources to replace older Wade-Giles or MPS2 signage. This has resulted in the odd situation in Taipei City in which inconsistent pinyin transcriptions are shown in freeway directions — with freeway signs, which are under the control of the national government, using one pinyin, but surface street signs, which are under the control of the city government, using the other.

Primary education continues to teach pronunciation using the zhùyin system in Taiwan. Although the ROC government has stated the desire to use romanization rather than zhùyin in education, the lack of agreement on which form of pinyin to use and the huge logistical challenge of teacher training has stalled these efforts.

Other languages

Pinyin-like systems have been devised for other variants of Chinese. Guangdong Romanization is a set of romanizations devised by the government of Guangdong province for Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka (Moiyen dialect), and Hainanese. All of these are designed to use Latin letters in a similar way to pinyin.

In addition, in accordance to the Regulation of Phonetic Transcription in Hanyu Pinyin Letters of Place Names in Minority Nationality Languages promulgated in 1976, place names in non-Chinese languages like Mongol, Uyghur, and Tibetan are also officially transcribed using pinyin. The pinyin letters (26 Roman letters, ü, ê) are used to approximate the non-Chinese language in question as closely as possible. This results in spellings that are different from both the customary spelling of the place name, and the pinyin spelling of the name in Chinese:

Comparison with other orthographies

Pinyin is now used by foreign students learning Chinese as a second language.

Pinyin assigns some Roman letters phonological values which are quite different from that of most languages.

Pinyin is purely a representation of the sounds of Mandarin, therefore it lacks the semantic cues that Chinese characters can provide. It is also unsuitable for transcribing some Chinese spoken languages other than Mandarin.

Simple computer systems, able only to display only 7-bit ASCII text (essentially the 26 Latin letters, 10 digits and punctuation marks), long provided the most convincing argument in favor of pinyin over Hanzi. Today, however, most computer systems are able to display characters from Chinese and many other writing systems as well, and have them entered with a Latin keyboard using an input method editor. Alternatively, some PDAs, tablet PCs and digitizing tablets allow users to input characters directly by writing with a stylus.

Mac OS X

Activate the "US Extended" keyboard in System Preferences and then do:

Option-a and then to create the first tones: a, e, i, o, u

Option-e and then to create the second tones: á, é, í, ó, ú

Option-v and then to create the third tone: a, e, i, o, u

Option-` and then to create the fourth tone: à, è, ì, ò, ù

u and then Shift-Option-u and then Shift-Option- gives u, u, u or u.

v may be entered as a to produce a ü. For instance, Option-e v produces u. Option-u u produces a ü without tone marks.

Windows

Many Chinese IMEs allow an additional Hanyu Pinyin toggle in addition to the simplified/traditional toggle. The user can then type pinyin and tone marks using the alphanumeric keys on a standard keyboard; the popular is one such example. Pinyinput is a Windows-based IME that allows you to type toned pinyin with ease. Because it works at the system level, it will allow you to type pinyin with tones in any Windows program just as easily as you would type Chinese (in fact even easier, because you don't need to select the correct character). Activate the IME then start typing pinyin. Type a number from 1-4 after a pinyin syllable, and the corresponding tone will automatically be placed on the correct vowel of that syllable.

References

Yin Binyong? and Mary Felley (1990). Chinese Romanization. Pronunciation and Orthography (Hanyu pinyin he zhengcifa?). Beijing: Sinolingua. ISBN 7-80052-148-6 / ISBN 0-8351-1930-0.

Hanyu Pinyin Courses

Language Practitioner- Hanyu Pinyin:This is a free, comprehensive, step-by-step, self-study online multimedia course for English speaking Hanyu (also known as Mandarin, Putonghua, Guoyu or Huayu) second language learners.

Auto-converters

Add toned Pinyin on top of Chinese characters

Convert Chinese to Pinyin

Loqu8 iNterpreter: Translates simplified or traditional Chinese to Pinyin (with tone marks) and English.

Google IME: Chinese Input Method Editor (IME)

Pinyin4j: Java library supporting Chinese to various pinyin representations Supports Simplified and Traditional Chinese; target pinyin systems include Hanyu Pinyin, Tongyong Pinyin, Wade-Giles, MPS2, Yale and Gwoyeu Romatzyh; supports multiple pronunciations of a single character; supports customized output, such as ü or tone marks.

Pinyinput An IME that outputs pinyin with tone marks and greatly simplifies the process of entering pinyin with tone marks on Windows.

Pinyin Annotator Displays pinyin above any Chinese text (in Firefox) or next to individual words (in IE). Mouse over any word to see English translation. Save output to OpenOffice Writer format. Prints nicely. Also adds pinyin to any Chinese web page.

Pinyin Translator: Displays pinyin with tone marks for traditional or simplified Chinese text. Pinyin is displayed after each Chinese word.

Pinyin Tone Tool Converts pinyin with tone numbers into pinyin with tone marks above the correct vowels. Doesn't require page re-loads.

Pinyin Annotation Tool Displays pinyin below any simplified Chinese text. Offers choice of annotating all characters or only less common characters, depending on skill level.

Other

Online Chinese typing with tones

Comprehensive explanation of Pinyin

- Useful resource for identifying Chinese characters (copy and paste individual characters into "search" box)

Hanyu Pinyin Information

Pinyin Bible

Read/Write using Unicode

Tongyong and Hanyu Pinyin

U.S. Library of Congress conversion page

Zhuyin->Wade-Giles->Pinyin->Word List

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