Libertarianism
Libertarianism is a term used by a broad spectrum[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Libertarianism, Stanford University, July 24, 2006 version.] of political philosophies
which prioritize individual liberty[Professor Brian Martin, Eliminating state crime by abolishing the state.][Murray Rothbard, Do You Hate the State?, The Libertarian Forum, Vol. 10, No. 7, July 1977.] The definition of libertarian in a political sense is a contentious issue and libertarians agree on no single principle or set of principles. The proper role of government is described from a number of different metaphysical, epistemological, and moral viewpoints.
History
"Libertarian" was originally used by free-thinkers to mean those who believed in free-will (as opposed to determinism).[David Boaz, Libertarianism: A Primer, Free Press, 1998, 22-25.] Libertarianism is still used in metaphysical discussions of free will. The first recorded usage of the term "libertarian" was by William Belsham in 1789".[William Belsham, "Essays", printed for C. Dilly, 1789; original from the University of Michigan, digitized May 21, 2007.]
Political Adoption
The term libertarian was first popularized in France in the 1890s in order to counter and evade the anti-anarchist laws known as the les lois scélérates. According to the anarchist historian Max Nettlau, the first use of the term libertarian communism was in November 1880, when a French anarchist congress employed it to more clearly identify its doctrines.[Le Libertaire, 1895.]
In the United States, libertarianism as a synonym for anarchism had meantime begun to take hold. The anarchist communist geographer and social theorist Peter Kropotkin wrote in his seminal 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Anarchism that:
 "It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch, the penetration, on the one hand, of anarchist ideas into modern literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the libertarian ideas of the best contemporary writers have exercised upon the development of anarchism."[Peter Kropotkin, "Anarchism" 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica.]
Today, worldwide, anarchist communist, libertarian socialist, and other left-libertarian movements continue to describe themselves as libertarian. These styles of libertarianism are opposed to most or all forms of private property.
Adoption by pro-property movements
Age of Enlightenment ideas[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] of "individual liberty, constitutionally limited government, peace, and reliance on the institutions of civil society and the free market for social order and economic prosperity" were the basis of what became know as liberalism in the 19th century. While it kept that meaning in most of the world, "modern liberalism in the United States" began to mean a more statist viewpoint. Over time those who held to the earlier liberal views began to call themselves market liberals, classical liberals or libertarians.[The Achievements of Nineteenth-Century Classical Liberalism, Cato Institute, Cato University home study course module 10.] While conservatism in Europe continued to mean conserving hierarchical class structures through state control of society and the economy, some conservatives in the United States began to refer to conserving traditions of liberty. This was especially true of the "Old Right" who opposed The New Deal and U.S. military interventions in World War I and World War II.[Murray Rothbard, The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism, excerpted from the first chapter of For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, at LewRockwell.com.][Murray Rothbard, The Life and Death of the Old Right, first published in the September 1990 issue of The Rothbard-Rockwell Report, at LewRockwell.com.]
Later, the Austrian School of economics also had a powerful impact on both economic teaching and classical liberal and libertarian principles.[What is Austrian Economics?, Ludwig Von Mises Institute.][Richard M. Ebeling, Austrian Economics and the Political Economy of Freedom, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, 163-179 ISBN 1840649402, 9781840649406.] It influenced economists and political philosophers and theorists including Henry Hazlitt, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Israel Kirzner, Murray Rothbard, Walter Block, Richard M. Ebeling and others. The Austrian School was in turn influenced by Frederic Bastiat.[DiLorenzo, Thomas. "Frederic Bastiat (1801-1850): Between the French and Marginalist Revolutions." Mises.org| http://www.mises.org/fredericbastiat.asp][http://www.mises.org/journals/scholar/BastiatAustrian.pdf|Thornton, Mark. "Frédéric Bastiat as an Austrian Economist." Mises.org.]
Starting in the 1930s and continuing until today, a group of central European economists lead by Austrians Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek identified the collectivist underpinnings to the various new socialist and fascist doctrines of government power as being different brands of totalitarianism.
In the 1940s, Leonard Read began calling himself "libertarian."[ In 1955, Dean Russell wrote an article in the Foundation for Economic Education magazine pondering what to call those, such as himself, who subscribed to the classical liberal philosophy. He suggested: "Let those of us who love liberty trademark and reserve for our own use the good and honorable word "libertarian."][Russell, Dean. Who is a Libertarian?, Foundation for Economic Education, "Ideas on Liberty," May, 1955.]
Ayn Rand's international best sellers The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957) and her books about her philosophy of Objectivism inspired a new interest in ideas of liberty and influenced modern libertarianism. Brian Doherty describes her influence: " er literary skills and burning moral passion, as much as her rigorous, systematic approach to the linkages between reason and liberty, will remain a powerful introduction to the idea that your life belongs to you, not to the state or the collective—and to the rich and complex series of conclusions about the proper nature and mission of government that follows from that idea."[Brian Doherty, Ayn Rand at 100: "Yours Is the Glory", Cato Institute Policy Report Vol. XXVII No. 2 (March/April 2005).] For a number of years after the publication of her books, people promoting a libertarian philosophy continued to call it "individualism."[Lee Edwards, Ph.D., The Conservative Consensus: Frank Meyer, Barry Goldwater, and the Politics of Fusionism, Heritage Foundation issue paper, January 22, 2007.] Two other women also published influential pro-freedom books in 1943, Rose Wilder Lane’s The Discovery of Freedom and Isabel Paterson’s The God of the Machine.[Jude Blanchette, What Libertarians and Conservatives Say About Each Other: An Annotated Bibliography], LewRockwell.com, October 27, 2004.]
According to libertarian publisher Robert W. Poole, Arizona United States Senator Barry Goldwater's message of "individual liberty, economic freedom, and anti-communism" also had a major impact on the libertarian movement, both with the publication of his book Conscience of a Conservative and with his run for president in 1964. He made it "acceptable to question the legitimacy of an all-powerful national government."[Robert Poole, In memoriam: Barry Goldwater - Obituary, Reason Magazine, August-Sept, 1998.] Goldwater's speech writer, Karl Hess, would go on to become a leading libertarian writer and activist.[Hess, Karl. The Death of Politics, Interview in Playboy, July 1976.]
The Cold War mentality of military interventionism, which had supplanted "Old Right" noninterventionism, was promoted by conservatives like William F. Buckley and accepted by many libertarians, with Murray Rothbard being a notable dissenter.[Murray Rothbard, The Early 1960s: From Right to Left, excerpt from chapter 13 of Murray Rothbard The Betrayal of the American Right, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007.] However, the Vietnam War split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self-identified libertarians, anarcho-libertarians, and more traditional conservatives who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians joined the draft dodger and peace movements and even Students for a Democratic Society. They began founding their own publications, like Murray Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance. The split was aggravated at the 1969 Young Americans for Freedom convention when more than 300 libertarians organized to take control of the organization from conservatives. The burning of a draft card in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees, a walk out by a large number of libertarians, the creation of new purely libertarian organizations like the Society for Individual Liberty, and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations.[Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s, University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 0520217144, 215-237.] It was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F. Buckley in a 1971 New York Times article attempted to read libertarians out of the freedom movement. He wrote: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded."
In 1971, libertarians including David Nolan and a few friends formed the first libertarian political party.[Bill Winter, "1971–2001: The Libertarian Party's 30th Anniversary Year: Remembering the first three decades of America's 'Party of Principle'" LP News] Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, it has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972, including Ed Clark (1980), Ron Paul (1988), Harry Browne (1996 and 2000) and Bob Barr (2008). By 2006, polls showed that 15 percent of American voters identified themselves as libertarian.[The Libertarian Vote, by David Boaz and David Kirby. Cato Institute policy analysis paper 580, October 18, 2006. The Libertarian Vote] Over the years, dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. (See list). Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s and more have been created since then.[International Society for Individual Liberty Freedom Network list.]
Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in the academy with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[David Lewis Schaefer, Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia, The New York Sun, April 30, 2008.] According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs: "Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia. Indeed, it is not too much to say that without Nozick's book, there might not be a vital and growing academic libertarian movement today, making its way from university to university, from discipline to discipline, from nation to nation."[The Advocates Robert Nozick page.]
Libertarian principles
According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Libertarians are committed to the belief that individuals, and not states or groups of any other kind, are both ontologically and normatively primary; that individuals have rights against certain kinds of forcible interference on the part of others; that liberty, understood as non-interference, is the only thing that can be legitimately demanded of others as a matter of legal or political right; that robust property rights and the economic liberty that follows from their consistent recognition are of central importance in respecting individual liberty; that social order is not at odds with but develops out of individual liberty; that the only proper use of coercion is defensive or to rectify an error; that governments are bound by essentially the same moral principles as individuals; and that most existing and historical governments have acted improperly insofar as they have utilized coercion for plunder, aggression, redistribution, and other purposes beyond the protection of individual liberty.
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states "libertarianism holds that agents initially fully own themselves and have moral powers to acquire property rights in external things under certain conditions." It notes that libertarianism is not a “right-wing” doctrine because of its opposition to laws restricting adult consensual sexual relationships and drug use, and its opposition to imposing religious views or practices and compulsory military service. However, it notes that there is a version known as “left-libertarianism” which also endorses full self-ownership, but "differs on unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.)." "Right-libertarianism" holds that such resources may be appropriated by individuals. "Left-libertarianism" holds that they belong to everyone and must be distributed in some egalitarian manner.
Like many libertarians, Leonard Read rejected the concepts of "left" and "right" libertarianism, calling them "authoritarian."[Leonard E. Read, Neither Left Nor Right, The Freeman, February 1998, Vol. 48 No. 2.] Libertarian author and politician Harry Browne wrote: "We should never define Libertarian positions in terms coined by liberals or conservatives nor as some variant of their positions. We are not fiscally conservative and socially liberal. We are Libertarians, who believe in individual liberty and personal responsibility on all issues at all times. You can depend on us to treat government as the problem, not the solution."[Harry Browne, The Libertarian stand on abortion, Harry Browne web site, December 21, 1998.]
Isaiah Berlin's 1958 essay "Two Concepts of Liberty" described a difference between negative liberty which limits the power of the state to interfere and positive liberty in which a paternalistic state helps individuals achieve self-realization and self-determination. He believed these were rival and incompatible interpretations of liberty and held that demands for positive liberty lead to authoritarianism. This view has been adopted by many libertarians including Robert Nozick and Murray Rothbard.[Positive and Negative Liberty, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Oct 8, 2007.]
Libertarians contrast two ethical views: consequentialist libertarianism, which is the support for liberty because it leads to favorable consequences, such as prosperity or efficiency and deontological libertarianism (also known as "rights-theorist libertarianism," "natural rights libertarianism," or "libertarian moralism") which consider moral tenets to be the basis of libertarian philosophy.[Bradford. R. W. 2008. The Two Libertarianisms. Liberty (1987). Liberty Foundation.] Others combine a hybrid of consequentialist and deontologist thinking.
Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed, but from contract or mutual agreement. Robert Nozick holds a variation on this view, as does Jan Narveson as outlined in his 1988 work The Libertarian Idea and his 2002 work Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice. Other advocates of contractarian libertarianism include the Nobel Laureate and founder of the public choice school of economics James M. Buchanan, Canadian philosopher David Gauthier and Hungarian-French philosopher Anthony de Jasay.[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on "Contractarianism", revised April 4, 2007.][Anthony de Jasay, Hayek: Some Missing Pieces, The Review of Austrian Economics Vol. 9,NO.1 (1996): 107-18, ISSN0889-3047][Hardy Bouillon, Hartmut Kliemt, Ordered AnarchyAshgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, foreward, ISBN 075466113X, 9780754661139]
Libertarian viewpoints
and
The main differences among libertarians relate to the ideal amount of freedom and the means to that freedom.
Anarchism
Anarchism is a political philosophy encompassing many theories and traditions, all opposed to government. Although anarchism is usually considered to be a left-wing ideology, it always has included individualists and, more recently, anarcho-capitalists who support pro-property and market-oriented economic structures. Anarchists support everything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism.
Geolibertarianism
Geolibertarianism is a political movement that strives to reconcile libertarianism and Georgism (or geoism).[Foldvary, Fred E. Geoism and Libertarianism. The Progress Report. ] Geolibertarians are advocates of geoism, which is the position that all land is a common asset to which all individuals have an equal right to access, and therefore if individuals claim the land as their property they must pay rent to the community for doing so. Rent need not be paid for the mere use of land, but only for the right to exclude others from that land, and for the protection of one's title by government. They simultaneously agree with the libertarian position that each individual has an exclusive right to the fruits of his or her labor as their private property, as opposed to this product being owned collectively by society or the community, and that "one's labor, wages, and the products of labor" should not be taxed. In agreement with traditional libertarians they advocate "full civil liberties, with no crimes unless there are victims who have been invaded."
Left-libertarianism
Left-libertarianism is usually regarded as doctrine that has an egalitarian view concerning natural resources, believing that it is not legitimate for someone to claim private ownership of resources to the detriment of others.[Prof. Will Kymlicka "libertarianism, left-" in See also Steiner, Hillel & Vallentyne. 2000. Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1][Gaus, Gerald F. & Kukathas, Chandran. 2004. Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications Inc. p. 128] Most left libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources.[e.g. Faatz, Chris, "Toward a Libertarian Socialism."]
Some members of the U.S. libertarian movement, including the late Samuel Edward Konkin III[Konkin was the founder of agorism, author of the New Libertarian Manifesto, and founder of the Movement of the Libertarian Left] and Roderick T. Long,[Long is a well-known writer on left-libertarian zines and blogs. One of his descriptions of the political spectrum is in his article for the Ludwig von Mises Institute entitled Rothbard's "Left and Right": Forty Years Later] employ a differing definition of left libertarianism. These individuals depart from other forms of libertarianism by opposing intellectual property,["In 1978, the Movement of the Libertarian Left was formed out of remaining aboveground activists to restore and continue the alliance Rothbard and Oglesby had begun between the New Left and Libertarians against foreign intervention or imperialism." ] and by supporting labor unions.[Rad Geek People’s Daily 2004-05-01 – Free The Unions (and all political prisoners)][The Industrial Radical] Some wish to revive voluntary cooperative ideas such as mutualism.[See for example Kevin Carson's Austrian and Marxist Theories of Monopoly Capital: A Mutualist Synthesis]
Libertarian conservatism
Libertarian conservatism, also known as conservative libertarianism (and sometimes called right-libertarianism), describes certain political ideologies which attempt to meld libertarian and conservative ideas, often called "fusionism."[Edward Feser, What Libertarianism Isn’t, Lew Rockwell.com, December 22, 2001.][Ralph Raico, Is Libertarianism Amoral?, New Individualist Review, Volume 3, Number 3, Fall 1964, 29-36; republished by Ludwig von Mises Institute, April 4, 2005.] Anthony Gregory writes that right, or conservative, "libertarianism can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations" such as being "interested mainly in 'economic freedoms'"; following the "conservative lifestyle of right-libertarians"; seeking "others to embrace their own conservative lifestyle"; considering big business "as a great victim of the state"; favoring a "strong national defense"; and having "an Old Right opposition to empire."[Anthony Gregory, Left, Right, Moderate and Radical, LewRockwell.com, December 21, 2006.]
Conservatives hold that shared values, morals, standards, and traditions are necessary for social order while libertarians consider individual liberty as the highest value.[Cathy Young, Enforcing Virtue: Is social stigma a threat to liberty, or is it liberty in action?, review of "Freedom & Virtue: The Conservative Libertarian Debate", Reason, March 2007.] Laurence M. Vance writes: "Some libertarians consider libertarianism to be a lifestyle rather than a political philosophy... They apparently don’t know the difference between libertarianism and libertinism."
Some libertarian conservatives in the United States (known as libertarian constitutionalists) believe that the way to limit government is to enforce the United States Constitution.
Libertarian progressivism
Libertarian progressivism supports the civil libertarian aspect of freedom as well as supporting the kind of economic freedom that emphasizes removing corporate subsidies and other favoritism to special interests, and applying a responsible transition toward freedom - for example, some support a transition approach that includes certain trade restrictions on imports from countries that have very little freedom, and free trade with those countries would be phased in if they move toward more freedom. Libertarian progressives are sometimes libertarian Democrats.
Libertarian socialism
Libertarian socialism aims to create a society in which all violent or coercive institutions would be dissolved, and in their place every person would have free, equal access to tools of information and production, or a society in which such coercive institutions and hierarchies were drastically reduced in scope.[Baake, David. "Prospects for Libertarian Socialism", Zmag (June 2005)]
This equality and freedom would be achieved through the abolition of "authoritarian" institutions such as an individual's right to own private property,[Mendes, Silva. ‘Socialismo Libertdrio ou Anarchismo’ Vol. 1 (1896): “Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property and liberty by abolition of authority”] in order that direct control of the means of production and resources will be gained by the working class and society as a whole.
Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist include: most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism,[Bookchin, Murray. 'Post-Scarcity Anarchism' AK Press (2004) p.xl] and council communism[Chomsky, Noam. 'Chomsky on Democracy and Education' Routledge (2002) p.133] (or even communism itself, as it is described by Karl Marx or Lenin in a further stage of development of socialism).
Minarchism
Minarchism is the belief that a state should exist but that its functions should be minimal because its sole purpose is protecting the rights of the people, including protecting people and their property from the criminal acts of others, as well as providing for national defense.[Kevin A. Carson. Libertarian Property and Privatization: An Alternative Paradigm]
Mutualism
Mutualism, as a libertarian socialist [Miller, David. 1987. "Mutualism." The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11] Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold, it ought to receive in exchange, goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility"[Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 15.] (receiving anything less is considered exploitation, theft of labor, or "usury"). Some mutualists believe that if the state did not intervene, economic law would ensure that individuals receive no more income than that in proportion to the amount of labor they exert.[Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraphs 9, 10 & 22.]
Carson, Kevin, 2004, Studies in Mutualist Political Economy, chapter 2 (after Meek & Oppenheimer). Mutualists oppose the idea of individuals receiving an income through loans, investments, and rent, as they believe these individuals are not laboring. Some of them hold that if state intervention ceased, these types of incomes would disappear.[Tandy, Francis D., 1896, Voluntary Socialism, chapter 6, paragraph 19.]
Carson, Kevin, 2004, Studies in Mutualist Political Economy, chapter 2 (after Ricardo, Dobb & Oppenheimer). Though Proudhon opposed this type of income, he expressed: "... I never meant to ... forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital. I believe that all these forms of human activity should remain free and optional for all."[Solution of the Social Problem, 1848-49.]
Objectivism
Libertarianism's status is in dispute among those who style themselves Objectivists (Objectivism is the name philosopher-novelist Ayn Rand gave her philosophy). Though elements of Rand's philosophy have been adopted by libertarianism, Objectivists (including Rand herself) have condemned libertarianism as a threat to freedom and capitalism. In particular, it has been claimed that libertarians use Objectivist ideas "with the teeth pulled out of them".[ Ayn Rand’s Q & A on Libertarianism][Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand]
Conversely, some libertarians see Objectivists as dogmatic, unrealistic, and uncompromising (Objectivists do not see the last as a negative attribute). According to Reason editor Nick Gillespie in the magazine's March 2005 issue focusing on Objectivism's influence, Rand is "one of the most important figures in the libertarian movement... Rand remains one of the best-selling and most widely influential figures in American thought and culture" in general and in libertarianism in particular. Still, he confesses that he is embarrassed by his magazine's association with her ideas. In the same issue, Cathy Young says that "Libertarianism, the movement most closely connected to Rand's ideas, is less an offspring than a rebel stepchild." Though they reject what they see as Randian dogmas, libertarians like Young still believe that "Rand's message of reason and liberty... could be a rallying point" for libertarianism.
Objectivists reject the oft-heard libertarian refrain that State and government are "necessary evils": for them, a government limited to protection of its citizens' rights is absolutely necessary and moral. Objectivists are opposed to all anarchist currents and are suspicious of libertarians' lineage with individualist anarchism.[Libertarian National Committee: Our History]
Current libertarian movements
Europe
In France, Liberté chérie ("Cherished Liberty") is a pro-liberty think tank and activist association formed in 2003. Liberté chérie gained significant publicity when it managed to draw 30,000 Parisians into the streets to demonstrate against government employees who were striking.[ In Paris, « antistrike » rally to support Prime Minister Mr. Fillon project , Le Monde, 2003.][Andrew Schwartz, An Interview with Sabine Herold on Politics, France, and Freedom, January 12, 2004.]
In Germany, a "Libertäre Plattform in der FDP" ("Liberty Caucus within the Free Democratic Party") was founded in 2005.
The Russian Libertarian Movement (Rossiyskoye Libertarianskoye Dvizhenie, RLD; 2003-2006) was a short-lived political party in the Russian Federation, formed by members of the Institute of Natiology (Moscow), a libertarian think-tank. After electoral failure and government failure, it disbanded.
Commonwealth of Nations
The Libertarian Alliance was an early libertarian educational group. It was followed by British think tanks such as the Adam Smith Institute. A British Libertarian Party was founded on January 1, 2008.
United States
Well known libertarian organizations include the Center for Libertarian Studies, the Cato Institute, the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE), the International Society for Individual Liberty (ISIL) and the Ludwig von Mises Institute. The Libertarian Party of the United States is the world's first such party.
The activist Free State Project, formed in 2001, works to bring 20,000 libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to influence state policy. They had signed up 1,033 people by 2008. Similar, but less successful, projects include include the Free West Alliance and Free State Wyoming. (There is also a European Free State Project.)
Latin America
Costa Rica's Movimiento Libertario ("Libertarian Movement") is libertarian party which holds roughly 10% of the seats in Costa Rica's national assembly (legislature). The Limón REAL Project seeks for autonomy in a province in Costa Rica.[Limón REAL - A Free and Autonomous Region.]
See also
Australian Libertarian Society
Free Talk Live
Laissez Faire Books
Liberator Online
Liberism
Libertarian Management
Libertarianz
Liberty
Liberty Magazine
The Freeman
List of liberal theorists
Bibliography
Brian Doherty Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement, PublicAffairs, (2007) Franzen, Don. Los Angeles Times Book Review Desk, review of "Neither Left Nor Right". January 19, 1997. Franzen states that "Murray and Boaz share the political philosophy of libertarianism, which upholds individual liberty--both economic and personal--and advocates a government limited, with few exceptions, to protecting individual rights and restraining the use of force and fraud." ( Review on libertarianism.org). MSN Encarta's entry on Libertarianism defines it as a "political philosophy" (Both references retrieved June 24, 2005). The Encyclopedia Britannica defines Libertarianism as "Political philosophy that stresses personal liberty." ( link, accessed June 29, 2005) Rand, Ayn. "Ayn Rand’s Q&A on Libertarians", from a 1971 interview.
General
Cato Institute
LewRockwell.com
Mises Institute
Reason Magazine
Articles
Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty by Murray Rothbard
Are Libertarians "Anarchists"? - Article by Murray N. Rothbard
"The Philosophy of Liberty" (Flash) at the International Society for Individual Liberty
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