Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy with between 230 and 500 million adherents worldwide.[Major Religions Ranked by Size]
Buddhism has spread through two main traditions; Theravada which extended south and east and now has widespread following in Southeast Asia, and Mahayana, which diffused first west, then north and later east throughout East Asia. Both traditions have since spread throughout the world.
There are considerable differences in the philosophies of existing sects both in their emphasis on specific parts of the Buddha´s teachings and in the practices they consider most beneficial. However, the primary aim of the Buddha was to help sentient beings end their suffering (see ) in accordance with the laws of Karma, by realizing the true nature of phenomena and thereby escaping the cycle of involuntary rebirths Samsara. One does this by applying the Dharma in addition to using many methods provided by various Buddhist lines of tradition. These include ethical conduct, renunciation of wordly matters, the training of one´s mind, devotional practices and relying on the help of holy beings to achieve Enlightenment. Followers of the Buddhist path take refuge in The Three Jewels: Buddha (The Enlightened or Awakened One), Dharma (The Teaching), and Sangha (The Community).
The Buddha
Gautama, whose personal name was Siddhartha, was born in the city of Lumbini[For instance, see the UNESCO webpage entitled, "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha". See also Gethin Foundations, p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Sakyas, was born."] and was raised in Kapilavastu.[For instance, Gethin Foundations, p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhartha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain—a rajan—in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (Theravada Buddhism, p. 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, The Life of the Buddha, ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources]
Little of the traditional story of Siddhartha's life (following) should be regarded as historical fact. He was born a prince. His father, King Suddhodana, was visited by a wise man shortly after his birth. The wise man said that Siddhartha would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a holy man (Sadhu) based on whether or not he ever saw life outside of the palace walls. Determined to make Siddhartha a king, the father tried to shield his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. However, despite his father's efforts, at the age of 29, he discovered the suffering of his people, first through an encounter with an elderly man, then on subsequent trips outside the palace, he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and a monk or an ascetic. These are often termed 'The Four Sights.'[http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights "On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights sent home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death. On his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."]
Gautama was deeply affected by these four sights and sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of an ascetic. Gautama escaped his palace, leaving behind this royal life to become a mendicant. For a time on his spiritual quest, he experimented with asceticism, which was considered a powerful spiritual practice. However, he found that ascetic practices, such as fasting, holding the breath, and exposure to pain brought little spiritual benefit. He viewed them as counterproductive due to their reliance on self hatred.[http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening]
He abandoned asceticism, concentrating instead on meditation and, according to some sources, Anapanasati (awareness of breathing in and out). Gautama is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation that lies mid-way between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little milk and rice pudding from a village girl and then, sitting under a pipal tree or Sacred fig (Ficus religiosa), also known as the Bodhi tree, in Bodh Gaya,[see: http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/bodhi_tree.html The Bodhi Tree][http://www.buddhamind.info/leftside/arty/bod-leaf.htm Bodhi leaf] he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. His five companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and had become undisciplined, left. At age 35, after 49 days meditating, he attained bodhi—also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. After attaining bodhi he was known as the Buddha or Gautama Buddha and spent the rest of his life teaching his insights (Dharma).[Skilton, Concise, p. 25] According to scholars, he lived during the fifth century BCE, but his more exact birthdate is open to debate.[Cousins, Dating.] He died at age 80 in Kushinagara (Pali Kusinara) (India).["the reputed place of the Buddha's death and cremation,"Encyclopedia Britannica, Kusinagara]
Important Concepts
Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central. Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.
Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.
Karma and rebirth
Rebirth has no discernible beginning, and takes place in a variety of types of life, later formally classified as the Five or Six Realms.
The karma of good and bad deeds produces "rewards" and "punishments" either in this life or in a subsequent one. These may be either rebirths themselves or events therein. The content of bad deeds and the lower types of good deeds belongs to the subject of Sila or conduct. Higher rebirths can be attained by the practice of forms of meditation later classified as samatha or samadhi.
Many Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be alleviated by following the Noble Eightfold Path, although the Buddha of some Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra, also teaches that powerful sutras such as the above-named can, through the very act of their being heard or recited, wholly expunge great swathes of negative karma.
The Four Noble Truths
According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were taught by the Buddha in his first sermon after reaching Enlightenment.[ In the Buddha's first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which was given to the five ascetics with whom he had practised austerities, he talks about the Middle Way, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Four Noble Truths.] They are often considered as containing the essence of the teachings of the Buddha and are presented in the the manner of a medical diagnosis and remedial prescription in a style that was common at the Buddha´s time.
They are:[ according to the Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004), Volume One, page 296]
 "the noble truth that is suffering"
"the noble truth that is the arising of suffering"
"the noble truth that is the end of suffering"
"the noble truth that is the way leading to the end of suffering"
The Four Noble Truths present a formulation of the Buddha´s understanding of the nature of dukkha, or "suffering"[The term used by the Buddha is dukkha. While suffering - i.e., being in a state of physical or mental pain - is one aspect of dukkha, it refers in a more general sense to the unhappiness ultimately characteristic of unawakened, worldly life or being caught in the cycle of involuntary rebirths (samsara), so it is believed by many that suffering is too narrow a translation and that it is best to leave dukkha untranslated.] , the fundamental cause of all suffering, the escape from suffering, and what effort a person can go to so that they themselves can "attain happiness."[Warder (1970), p. 34.]. Roughly put, and on a very basic level of understanding, they state that, firstly, life as we know it ultimately is or leads to "suffering" in one way or the other. That, secondly, the cause of this "suffering" is attachment to, or craving for worldly pleasures of all kinds and clinging to this very existence, our "self" and the things or people we - due to our delusions - deem the cause of our respective happiness or unhappiness. That, thirdly, the "suffering" ends when the craving ends, one is freed from all desires by eliminating the delusions, reaches "Enlightenment"; and that, fourthly, the way to reach that liberated state is by following the path the Buddha has layed out.
The above interpretation is followed closely by many modern Theravadins, described by early westerns scholars and taught as an introduction to Buddhism by many contemporary buddhist teachers like the Dalai Lama.[See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html The Four Noble Truths] According to other interpretations by buddhist teachers and scholars and lately recognized by some western scholars as well[Gethin, Foundations, page 60] the "truths" do not represent mere statements, but "things". According to that view, they present a perfect division of all phenomena as falling into one of these four categories: true sufferings and true causes are the effect and cause on the side of suffering; true cessations and true paths are the effect and cause on the side of liberation.
The early teaching[Harvey, Introduction, p. 47] and the traditional understanding in the Theravada[,pages 393f] is that the four noble truths are an advanced teaching for those who are ready for them. The Mahayana position is that they are a preliminary teaching for people not yet ready for the higher and more expansive Mahayana teachings.[Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 92] They are little known in the Far East.[Eliot, Japanese Budhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 60]
The Noble Eightfold Path and the middle way
The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. In the early sources (the four main Nikayas) it is not generally taught to laymen, and it is little known in the Far East.[Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, pages 59f] This is divided into three sections: Sila (which concerns wholesome physical actions), Samadhi (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) and Prajña (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).
Sila is morality—abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
Right Speech—One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way
Right Actions—Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm
Right Livelihood—One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly
Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
- Right Effort/Exercise—One makes an effort to improve
- Right Mindfulness/Awareness—Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness
- Right Concentration/Meditation—Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion.
Prajña is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:
- Right Understanding—Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be.
- Right Thoughts—Change in the pattern of thinking.
The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into prajña (Pali pañña, wisdom), sila (Pali sila, virtuous behavior) and samadhi (concentration).
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way which was said to have been discovered by the Buddha prior to his enlightenment (bodhi). The Middle Way or Middle Path has several definitions:
It is often described as the practice of non-extremism; a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and opposing self-mortification.
It also refers to taking a middle ground between certain metaphysical views, e.g. that things ultimately either exist or do not exist.[Kohn, Shambhala, pp. 131, 143]
An explanation of the state of nirvana and perfect enlightenment where all dualities fuse and cease to exist as separate entities (see Seongcheol).
Theravada promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis". This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith.
In Theravada Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as the craving, which carried with it the various defilements. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These defilements are believed to be parasites that have infested the mind and creates suffering and stress. It is believed that in order to be free from suffering and stress these defilements need to be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding the true nature of those defilements by using jhana, a technique which is part of the Noble Eightfold Path. It will then lead the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and Nibbana. Nibbana is the ultimate goals of Theravadin.
Ideas on ultimate reality
According to the scriptures, in his lifetime, the Buddha refused to answer several metaphysical questions. On issues such as whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the self, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death etc, the Buddha had remained silent. One explanation for this is that such questions distract from practical activity for realizing enlightenment.[MN 72 (Thanissaro, 1997). For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see Thanissaro (2004).] Another is that such questions assume the reality of world/self/person.
In the Pali Canon and numerous Mahayana sutras and Tantras, the Buddha stresses that Dharma (Truth) cannot truly be understood with the ordinary rational mind or logic: Reality transcends all worldly concepts. The "prajna-paramita" sutras have this as one of their major themes. What is urged is study, mental and moral self-cultivation, faith in and veneration of the sutras, which are as fingers pointing to the moon of Truth, but then to let go of ratiocination and to experience direct entry into Liberation itself.
The Buddha in the self-styled "Uttara-Tantra", the Mahaparinirvana Sutra (a Mahayana scripture), insists that, while pondering upon Dharma is vital, one must then relinquish fixation on words and letters, as these are utterly divorced from Liberation and the Buddha. The Tantra entitled the "All-Creating King" (Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra, a scripture of the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism) also emphasises how Buddhist Truth lies beyond the range of thought and is ultimately mysterious. The Supreme Buddha, Samantabhadra, states there: "The mind of perfect purity ... is beyond thinking and inexplicable ...."[The Sovereign All-Creating Mind tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.] Also later, the famous Indian Buddhist yogi and teacher mahasiddha Tilopa discouraged any intellectual activity in his 6 words of advice.
Most Buddhists agree that, to a greater or lesser extent, words are inadequate to describe the goal; schools differ radically on the usefulness of words in the path to that goal.[Philosophy East and West, volume Twenty-Six, page 138]
Buddhist scholars have produced a prodigious quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts. See e.g. Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, but most regard it as having a place, at least for some people at some stages.
Mahayana often adopts a pragmatic concept of truth:[Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1989, page 2] doctrines are "true" in the sense of being spiritually beneficial. In modern Chinese Buddhism, all doctrinal traditions are regarded as equally valid.[Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, page 395]
Mahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nagarjuna (perhaps c.150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition. Some of the writings attributed to him made explicit references to Mahayana texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the sutras. Nagarjuna asserted that the nature of the dharmas (hence the enlightenment) to be sunya (void or empty), bringing together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatman (no-self) and pratityasamutpada (dependent origination). His school of thought is known as the Madhyamaka.
Sarvastivada teaching, which was criticized by Nagarjuna, was reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and and were adapted into the Yogacara (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogacara school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahayana theology in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.
Emphasis is also often placed on the notions of Emptiness (shunyata), perfected spiritual insight (prajnaparamita) and Buddha-nature (the deathless tathagatagarbha, or Buddhic Essence, inherent in all beings and creatures). The teaching of the tathagatagarbha is said by the Buddha in the tathagatagarbha sutras to constitute the "absolutely final culmination" of his Dharma—the highest presentation of Truth (other sutras make similar statements about other teachings). This has traditionally been regarded as the highest teaching in East Asian Buddhism. However, in modern China all doctrines are regarded as equally valid.[Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, page 395] The Mahayana can also on occasion communicate a vision of the Buddha or Dharma which amounts to mysticism and gives expression to a form of mentalist panentheism (God in Buddhism).
Enlightenment and enlightened beings
All traditional Buddhists agree that Shakyamuni or Gotama Buddha was not the only Buddha: it is generally taught that there have been many past Buddhas and that there will be future Buddhas too.
Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the bodhisattva. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, as it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.
In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.
Bodhi (Pali and Sanskrit , lit. awakening) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of Arahants. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but is more commonly referred to as "enlightenment".
Bodhi carries a meaning synonymous to Nirvana, using only some different similies to describe the experience, which implied the extinction of raga (greed),[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary] dosa (hate)[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary] and moha (delusion).[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary]
Theravada
A person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality; such people are called arahants. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving they have also reached the end of the compulsive cycle of rebirths, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being.
These people, also occasionally referred to as buddhas, are classified into three types.
Sammasambuddha, usually just called Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
Paccekabuddha, who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
Savakabuddha, who has followed the teaching of a Buddha, and may use it to guide others
Bodhi and Nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate and delusion. The Arahant, according to Theravada doctrine, has thus overcome greed, hatred, and delusion, attaining Bodhi. In Theravada Buddhism, the extinction of only greed (in relation to the sense sphere) and hatred, while a residue of delusion remains, is called Anagami.
Mahayana
Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.
Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicate delusion entirely.[An important development in the Mahayana ] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.’’ How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67 Thus, the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the Buddha attains Bodhi.
The method of self-exertion or "self-power" - without reliance on an external force or being - stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, "Pure Land", which is characterised by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amida Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and/or the chanting of homage to his name will provide the spiritual energy that will liberate one at death into the "happy land" (sukhavati) or "pure land" of Amitabha (called Amida in Japanese) Buddha . This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only people will have faith in the power of that limitless great Vow, or will utter the liberational chant of Amida's name.
Nearly all Chinese Buddhists accept that the chances of attaining sufficient enlightenment by one's own efforts are very slim, so that Pure Land practice is essential as an "insurance policy" even if one practises something else.[Routledge Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2007, page 611]
Refuge in the Three Jewels
Traditionally, the first step in most forms of Buddhism requires taking refuge, as the foundation of one's religious practice, in Buddhism's Three Jewels (Sanskrit:? Triratna or? Ratna-traya, Pali: Tiratana).[Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha, tr Nanamoli, rev Bodhi, Wisdom Pubns, 1995, pages 708f] in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. The person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow/pledge. This is considered the ultimate expression of compassion in Buddhism.
The Three Jewels are:
The Buddha (i.e.,Awakened One). This is a title for those who attained Awakening similar to the Buddha and helped others to attain it. See also the Tathagata and Sakyamuni Buddha. The Buddha could also be represented as the wisdom that understands Dharma, and in this regard the Buddha represents the perfect wisdom that sees reality in its true form.
The Dharma: The teachings or law as expounded by the Buddha. Dharma also means the law of nature based on behavior of a person and its consequences to be experienced (action and reaction). It can also (especially in Mahayana Buddhism) connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality which is inseverable from the Buddha.
The Sangha: This term literally means "group" or "congregation," but when it is used in Buddhist teaching the word refers to one of two very specific kinds of groups: either the community of Buddhist monastics (bhikkhus and bhikkhunis), or the community of people who have attained at least the first stage of Awakening (Sotapanna (pali)—one who has entered the stream to enlightenment). According to some modern Buddhists, it also consists of laymen and laywomen, the caretakers of the monks, those who have accepted parts of the monastic code but who have not been ordained as monks or nuns.
According to the scriptures, The Buddha presented himself as a model, however, he did not ask his followers simply to have faith (Sanskrit? sraddha, Pali saddha) in his example of a human who escaped the pain and danger of existence. In addition, he encouraged them to put his teachings to the test and accept what they could verify on their own, provided that this was also "praised by the wise" (see Kalama Sutta). The Dharma, i.e. the teaching of the Buddha, offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The (Buddhist Order of monks) is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.
Morality
Sila (Sanskrit) or sila (Pali) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second paramita. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of sila are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.
Sila is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhavana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internally, but also peace in the community, which is externally. According to the Law of Kamma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.
Sila refers to overall (principles of) ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to 'basic morality' (five precepts), 'basic morality with asceticism' (eight precepts), 'novice monkhood' (ten precepts) and 'monkhood' (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which have some additional precepts of basic asceticism.
The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.
1. To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards sentient life forms)
2. To refrain from taking that which is not given. (not committing theft)
3. To refrain from sensual (sexual) misconduct.
4. To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always)
5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness. (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)
In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.
The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:
6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time. (only eat from sunrise to noon)
7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows, etc.
8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.
Monastic life
Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension. The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. Novice-monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.
In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism). In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.
Samadhi/Bhavana (Meditative cultivation)
In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamadhi is "right concentration". The primary means of cultivating samadhi is meditation. According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, viz. samatha meditation (Sanskrit: samatha) and vipassana meditation (Sanskrit: vipasyana). In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated chih kuan), but Chan (Zen) meditation is more popular.[Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism, Harvard, 1967, page 396] Throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual.[Routledge Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2007, page 502] Upon development of samadhi, one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.
Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhana, Sanskrit? dhyana), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassana) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.
Samatha Meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhana) There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath, because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana.
In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassana meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to jñana (Pali knowledge), prajña (Pali pañña pure understanding) and thus can lead to (Pali nibbana). When one is in jñana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only prajña or vipassana eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also resting states which arahants abide in order to rest.
Prajña (Wisdom)
Prajña (Sanskrit) or pañña (Pali) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. Prajña is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means, by its enlightenment, of attaining , through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha (unsatisfactory), anicca (impermanence) and anatta (devoid of self). Prajña is also listed as the sixth of the six paramitas of the Mahayana.
Initially, prajña is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse.
Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level. It should be noted that one could theoretically attain nirvana at any point of practice, while listening to a sermon, while conducting business of daily life or while in meditation.
Zen
Main article: Zen
Ch'an (Chinese) or Zen (Japanese) Buddhism (whose name is derived from the Sanskrit term, dhyana - "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation. According to Charles S. Prebish (in his Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1993, p. 287): "Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan, they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts, that provides the potential for direct realization, that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being ...". Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.
Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai and Soto, the former greatly favouring the use in meditation of the koan (meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focussing more on shikantaza or "just sitting". Prebish comments (op. cit., p. 244): "It presumes that sitting in meditation itself (i.e. zazen) is an expression of Buddha nature." The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Speaking of Zen in general, Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes (Zen Masterclass, Godsfield Press, 2002, pp. 12–13): "... practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment, the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature, is our natural state, but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts. According to this view, Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time, but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations."
Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself (Critical Sermons on the Zen Tradition, Hisamatsu Shin'ichi, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2002, passim). Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder, Linji, Hisamatsu states: "Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures. It is just our direct awakening to Self ..." (Hisamatsu, op. cit., p. 46). Nevertheless, Zen does not neglect the scriptures.[Harvey, Introduction, pages 165f]
Tantra
Though thoroughly based upon Mahayana, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is also one of the schools that practice Vajrayana or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayana, Tantrayana, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism). It therefore accepts all the basic concepts of Mahayana, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayana is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years.
Main traditions
Scholars usually categorize Buddhist schools by the ancient languages of surviving Buddhist religious scripture. These are the Pali, Tibetan, Mongolian and Chinese collections, along with some texts that still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. While practical, this method doesn't always correspond to doctrinal divisions. Despite these differences, there are several concepts common to both major Buddhist branches:[http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/comparative.htm]
Both accept the Buddha as their teacher.
Both accept the middle way, dependent origination, the four noble truths and the noble eightfold path, in theory, though in practice these have little or no importance in some traditions.
Both accept that members of the laity and of the sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi).
Both consider buddhahood to be the highest attainment; however Theravadins consider the nirvana (nibbana to the Theravadins) attained by arahants as identical to that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of nirvana. According to Theravadins, a buddha is someone who has discovered the path all by himself and taught it to others.
Early Buddhism
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into the following five periods:[A History of Indian Buddhism - Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 7]
Early Buddhism (also called Pre-sectarian Buddhism); Hajime Nakamura[Indian Buddhism, Japan, 1980, reprinted Motilal Banarsidass,Delhi,1987,1989,table of contents] subdivides this into two subperiods:
# original Buddhism (other scholars call this earliest Buddhism or precanonical Buddhism)
# early Buddhism
Period of the Early Buddhist schools (also called Sectarian Buddhism, Nikaya Buddhism)
Early Mahayana Buddhism
Later Mahayana Buddhism
Vajrayana Buddhism (also called Esoteric Buddhism)
These developments were not always consecutive. For example, the early schools continued to exist alongside Mahayana. Some scholars have argued that Mahayana remained marginal for centuries.
The term Early Buddhism can be applied to both Pre-sectarian Buddhism and the Buddhism of the Early Buddhist Schools.
Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka
The earliest phase of Buddhism (pre-sectarian Buddhism) recognized by nearly all scholars (the main exception is Dr Gregory Schopen,[ Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. His main views and arguments can be found in his book Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press]) is based on a comparison of the Pali Canon with surviving portions of other early canons. Its main scriptures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas or Agamas.
Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude at least that the Buddha must have taught something of the kind:[Mitchell, Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 2002, page 34 & table of contents]
the three characteristics
the five aggregates
dependent arising
karma and rebirth
the four noble truths
the eightfold path
nirvana
Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.[Skorupski, Buddhist Forum, vol I, Heritage, Delhi/SOAS, London, 1990, page 5; Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol 21 (1998), part 1, pages 4, 11]
Councils
According to the scriptures, soon after the (Pali: parinibbana, "complete extinguishment") of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally. The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occured in oral transmission. In the first council, Ananda, a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (sutras, Pali suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the abhidhamma. Upali, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (Vinaya). Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.[Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist]
These schisms occurred within the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahayana movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.
Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.[Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 74]
Further developments
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Asoka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Asoka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials (stupas) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravada Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.
This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the edicts of Asoka, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India in order to spread "Dhamma", particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean. This led, a century later, to the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and to the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization, and from changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions – themselves influenced by Buddhism. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were, or were accompanied by, Buddhist missionaries.
Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
The precise geographical origins of Mahayana are unknown. It is likely that various elements of Mahayana developed independently from the 1st century BCE onwards, initially within several small individual communities, in areas to the north-west within the Kushan Empire (within present-day northern Pakistan), and in areas within the Shatavahana Empire, including Amaravati to the south-east (in present-day Andhra Pradesh), to the west around the port of Bharukaccha (present-day Bharuch, a town near Bombay), and around the various cave complexes, such as Ajanta and Karli (in present-day Gujarat and Maharashtra). Some scholars have argued that Mahayana was a movement of lay Buddhists focused around stupa devotion. Pictures within the wall of a stupa representing the story of the Buddha and his previous reincarnation as a bodhisattva were used to preach Buddhism to the masses. Other scholar reject this theory.[, pages 20f] Monks representing different philosophical orientations could live in the same Sangha as long as they practiced the same Vinaya. Still, in terms of Abhidharma, the Sarvastivada school and the Dharmaguptaka school, both of which were widespread in the Kushan Empire, seem to have had major influence.
Around the second century CE, the Kushan emperor Kanishka is said to have convened what many western scholars call the fourth Buddhist council. This council is not recognised by the Theravada line of Buddhism. According to Mahayana sources, this council did not simply rely on the original Tripitaka. Instead, a set of new scriptures, mostly notably, the Lotus Sutra, an early version of the Heart Sutra and the Amitabha Sutra were approved, as well as fundamental principles of doctrine based around the concept of salvation for all beings (hence Mahayana "great vehicle") and the concept of Buddhas and bodhisattvas who embody the indwelling yet transcendent Buddha-nature who strive to achieve such a goal. However, most western scholars believe this council was purely Sarvastivada, while the late Monseigneur Professor Lamotte considered it entirely fictitious.
After the end of the , Buddhism flourished in India during the dynasty of the Guptas (4th – 6th century). Mahayana centres of learning were established, the most important one being the Nalanda University in north-eastern India.
Emergence of the Vajrayana
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayana and its tantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Sakyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. Nalanda University became a center for the development of Vajrayana theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayana practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nalanda tradition.
In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, Fairfield University professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time. With the fall of the Gupta dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led by siddhas became more prominent. After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.
Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for centuries.[Prebish & Keown, Introducing Buddhism, page 89]
Although it continued to in surrounding countries, over the centuries Buddhism gradually declined in India and it was virtually extinct there by the time of the British conquest.
Southern (Theravada) Buddhism
Theravada ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively conservative, and generally closest to early Buddhism.[Gethin, Foundations, page 1] This school is derived from the Vibhajjavada grouping which emerged amongst the older Sthavira group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE). This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.
The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pali Canon and its commentaries. After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing in the last century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council. It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing. The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts of the Pali Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.
Theravada is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in Europe and America.
Eastern (East Asian) Buddhism
In addition to the Tripitaka scriptures in the narrower sense, which (within Mahayana) are viewed as valid but only provisional or basic, Mahayana schools recognize all or part of a genre of Mahayana scriptures. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e.g. the Lotus Sutra and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra) to lay the foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.
Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.
Nichiren, peculiar to Japan
Pure Land
Shingon, a form of Vajrayana
Tendai
Chan/Zen
In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.[Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume One), pages 430, 435]
Pure Land Buddhism
Main article: Pure Land Buddhism
There are estimated to be around 100 million Chinese Buddhists.[World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 191, & volume 2, page 10] Pure Land Buddhism is the most popular form in China, particularly among the laity.[Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 152] In the first half of the twentieth century, most Chinese monks practised Pure Land, some combining it with Chan (Zen); Chan survived into the 20th century in a small number of monasteries, but died out in mainland China after the communist takeover.[Welch, Practice of Chinese Buddhism 1900-1950, Harvard, 1967, pages 47, 396] In Taiwan Chan meditation is popular,[Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 283] but most Buddhists follow Pure Land.[World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed, volume 1, page 723]
There are estimated to be about 40 million Buddhists in Vietnam.[World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed, Oxford University Press, 2001, volume 1, page 803] The Buddhism of monks and educated lay people is mainly Thien (Zen), with elements of Pure Land and tantra, but that of most ordinary Buddhists has little or no Thien element, being mainly Pure Land.[Harvey, Introduction, page 159; Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Volume Two), page 882]
Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism
In addition to the Mahayana scriptures, Vajrayana Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.
Buddhism today
Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength. While estimates of the number of Buddhist followers range from 230 to 500 million worldwide, most estimates are in the region of 350 million.
because of difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
because of adherents of Eastern religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto and traditional religions or Shamanism, animism often have beliefs comprising a mix of religious ideas[Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion][Windows on Asia - Chinese Religions][Religions and Beliefs in China][SACU Religion in China][Index-China Chinese Philosophies and religions][AskAsia - Buddhism in China][BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD ALONG THE SILK ROAD];
because it was difficult to estimate accurately the number of Buddhists because they did not have congregational memberships and often did not participate in public ceremonies[U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2006: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)];
because of uncertainties in the situation for several countries; most notably China, Vietnam and North Korea[openDemocracy.net - 'The Atlas of Religion,' Joanne O'Brien & Martin Palmer: State Attitudes to Religion][Center for Religious Freedom - Survey Files][The Range of Religious Freedom].
According to one analysis,
Theravada Buddhism, using Pali as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Burma. Also the Dalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. R. Ambedkar) practices Theravada.
East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use scriptures in Chinese are dominant in most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
Tibetan Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in Tibet, and the surrounding areas in India, Bhutan, Mongolia, Nepal, and the Russian Federation.
Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.
According to a website specializing in religious statistics,[, retrieved on 2008-01-15] the numbers of adherents of the three main traditions listed above are about 124, 185 and 20 million, respectively.
At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While, in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognized as one of the growing spiritual influences. (See also: Buddhism in the West)
Divisions
The most frequently used classification of present-day Buddhism among scholars[(Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984); Gethin (1998), pp. 1–2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravada tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."]
Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West." divides present-day adherents into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.
An alternative scheme used by some scholars[Smith, Buddhism; Juergensmeyer, Oxford Handbook. In addition, Gethin, Foundations, pp. 1–5, could be used to support the use of this bipartite classification scheme to the degree that he identifies that both East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism have a "general outlook" of the Mahayana tradition, although Tibetan Buddhism's "specific orientation" is Tantric Buddhism.] has two divisions, Theravada and Mahayana. In this classification, Mahayana includes both East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. This scheme is the one ordinarily used in the English language.
Some scholars[See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff] use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.
Buddhist texts
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the various texts. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canons of scripture are known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pali as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:
The Vinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for the Sanghas of Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
The Sutra Pitaka (Pali: Sutta Pitaka), contains discourses ascribed to the Buddha.
The Abhidharma Pitaka (Pali: Abhidhamma Pitaka) contains material often described as systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.
According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named Mahakasyapa (Pali: Mahakassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's sayings—sutras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pali)—and codify monastic rules (Vinaya). Ananda, the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses of the Buddha, and according to some sources the abhidhamma, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sutras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.
The Theravada and other early Buddhist Schools traditionally believe that the texts of their canon contain the actual words of the Buddha. The Theravada canon, also known as the Pali Canon after the language it was written in, contains some four million words. Other texts, such as the Mahayana sutras, are also considered by some to be the word of the Buddha, but supposedly were transmitted in secret, or via lineages of mythical beings (such as the nagas), or came directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Approximately six hundred Mahayana sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded by scholars as of Chinese origin.
The followers of Theravada Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pali Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahayana Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahayana sutras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pali sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the agamas.
Whereas the Theravadins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahayana accept both the agamas and the Mahayana sutras as authentic, valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravadins, however, the Mahayana sutras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma—and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.
For the Mahayanists, in contrast, the agamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha. From the Mahayana standpoint the Mahayana sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path. That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahayana (lit., the Great Vehicle), which expresses availability both to the general masses of sentient beings and those who are more developed. The theme of greatness can be seen in many elements of Mahayana Buddhism, from the length of some of the Mahayana sutras and the vastness of the Bodhisattva vow, which strives for all future time to help free all other persons and creatures from pain), to the (in some sutras and Tantras) final attainment of the Buddha's "Great Self" (mahatman) in the sphere of "Great Nirvana" (mahanirvana). For Theravadins and many scholars, including A.K. Warder,[A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000), p. 4] however, the self-proclaimed "greatness" of the Mahayana Sutras does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.
Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, some scholars have referred to the Vinaya Pitaka and the first four Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.[A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition (2000)] However, this could be considered misleading, as Mahayana considers these merely a preliminary, and not a core, teaching, the Tibetan Buddhists have not even translated most of the agamas, though theoretically they recognize them, and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or laity in China and Japan.[Eliot, Japanese Buddhism, Edward Arnold, London, 1935, page 16] The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.
Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the Tao Te Ching, into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles in "The Buddha and His Dhamma". Other such efforts have persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions.
Buddhist symbols
The eight auspicious symbols of Mahayana and Vajrayana are:
the Conch Shell
the Dharma wheel
the Endless Knot
the Golden Fish
the Lotus flower
the Treasure Vase
the Parasol (Umbrella)
the Victory Banner
Comparative study
Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine, dependent origination is, according to some, Buddhism's primary contribution to metaphysics. This has wide-ranging implication in terms of theology, philosophy, and science. On the other hand, Buddhist emphasis on the Middle way not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.
List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies
Buddhism and Hinduism
Buddhism and Christianity
Buddhism and Eastern teaching (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
Buddhism and Jainism
God in Buddhism (Buddhism, mysticism, and monotheism)
Buddhism and psychology
Buddhism and science (Buddhism and science)
Buddhist Ethics (Buddhism and ethics)
Buddhist philosophy (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
Buddhism and Thelema[Thelema & Buddhism in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32]
See also
Buddhist Ceremonies
Buddhist flag
Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana
Buddhist terms and concepts
List of Buddhist topics
List of Buddhists
shinbutsu shugo
Notes
References
Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) (1984). The World of Buddhism, Thames & Hudson.
; reprinted in Williams, Buddhism, volume I; NB in the online transcript a little text has been accidentally omitted: in section 4, between "... none of the other contributions in this section envisage a date before 420 B.C." and "to 350 B.C." insert "Akira Hirakawa defends the short chronology and Heinz Bechert himself sets a range from 400 B.C."
Williams, Paul (ed.) (2005). Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, 8 volumes, Routledge, London & New York.
Suggested reading
Also available on-line:
Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists, Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distibuted by Wisdom Books
ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
ISBN 0-8021-3031-3.
ISBN 0-7734-5985-5.
ISBN 0-86171-133-5.
Wei, Wei Wu,"Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra", Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1960.
Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series/ Delhi/ Indian Books Centre
Jewels of the Doctrine (Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century)/ Ranjini/ Sri Satguru Publications
External links
About Buddhism
Access to Insight
BuddhaNet
Seeing Through The Net
Buddhism at Open Directory Project
Buddhism Potpourri
Buddhist texts (English translations)
DharmaNet
E-Sangha
Essential Theravada Buddhism in graphics
Tathagatagarbha Mahayana sutras
Video documentary Buddhist history in India
What Buddha Taught Multi-lingual
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