Attack on Pearl Harbor
The attack on Pearl Harbor (or Hawaii Operation, as it was called by the Imperial General Headquarters)[Fukudome, Shigeru, "Hawaii Operation". United States Naval Institute, Proceedings, 81 (December 1955), pp.1315-1331] was a surprise attack conducted by the Japanese navy against the United States' naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on the morning of Sunday December 7, 1941, later resulting in the United States becoming militarily involved in World War II. It was intended as a preventive action to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from influencing the war Japan was planning to wage in Southeast Asia against the Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States. The attack consisted of two aerial attack waves totaling 353
The attack wrecked two U.S. Navy battleships, one minelayer, and two destroyers beyond repair, destroyed 188 aircraft and caused personnel losses of 2,402 killed and 1,282 wounded. Damaged warships included three cruisers, a destroyer, and six battleships (one deliberately grounded, later refloated and repaired by 1943; two sunk at their berths, later raised, repaired, and eventually restored to Fleet service in 1944). Vital fuel storage, shipyard, maintenance, and headquarters facilities were not hit. Japanese losses were minimal at 29 aircraft and five midget submarines, with 65 servicemen killed or wounded.
The aim of the strike was to protect Imperial Japan's advance into Malaya and the Dutch East Indies — to access their natural resources such as oil and rubber — by neutralizing the U.S. Pacific Fleet. Both the U.S. and Japan held long-standing contingency plans for war in the Pacific which were continuously updated as tensions between the two countries steadily increased during the 1930s, with the Japanese expansion into Manchuria and French Indochina greeted by steadily increased levels of embargoes and sanctions from the United States and other nations.
In 1940 under the authority granted by the Export Control Act the U.S. halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools and aviation gasoline, perceived by Japan as an unfriendly act.[ After it was announced in September export of iron and steel scrap would also be prohibited, Japanese Ambassador Horinouchi protested to Secretary Hull on October 8, 1940 warning that this might be considered an "unfriendly act".] The U.S. did not stop oil exports to Japan at that time in part because it was thought in Washington that such an action would be an extreme step, as given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil[.][Toland, Japan's War.] it was likely to be considered a provocation by Japan.
Following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the fall of France, in the summer of 1941 the U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption.[.]
President Franklin D. Roosevelt had earlier moved the Pacific Fleet to Hawaii and ordered a military buildup in the Philippines, hoping to discourage Japanese aggression in the Far East. As the Japanese high command was certain that any attack on the United Kingdom's Southeast Asian colonies would bring the U.S. into the war,
While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it was completely unnecessary. Unbeknownst to Isoroku Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon 'charging' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of War Plan Orange).[.] The U.S. instead adopted "Plan Dog" in 1940, which emphasized keeping the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.
The attack was an important engagement of World War II. Unintentionally occurring before a formal declaration of war (which had been scheduled to be delivered shortly prior to the attack beginning),[Calvocoressi, Wint, Pritchard, The Penguin History of the Second World War, p. 952-953] it pushed U.S. public opinion from isolationism to the acceptance that participation in the war was unavoidable; with the lack of warning leading Roosevelt to call it "a date which will live in infamy."
Background to conflict
War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility each nation had been aware of (and developed contingency plans for) since the 1920s, though tensions did not begin to grow seriously until Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all out war between the two in 1937. In 1940 Japan invaded French Indochina in both an effort to control supplies reaching China, and as a first step to improve her access to resources in Southeast Asia. This move prompted an American embargo on oil exports to Japan, which in turn caused the Japanese to initiate its planned takeover of oil production in the Dutch East Indies.[This was mainly a Japanese Navy preference; the Japanese Army would have chosen to attack the Soviet Union. ; Coox, Kobun.] Furthermore, the transfer of the U.S. Pacific Fleet from its previous base in San Diego to its new base in Pearl Harbor was seen by the Japanese military as the U.S. readying itself for a potential conflict between the two countries.
Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area" (the Japanese term for the East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun in very early 1941, under the auspices of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, then commanding Japan's Combined Fleet.[.] He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command.[.] Full-scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Captain Minoru Genda. Over the next several months pilots trained, equipment was adapted and intelligence gathered. Despite these preparations the actual approval of the attack plan was not issued by Emperor Showa until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences which considered the matter.[Peter Wetzler, Hirohito and War, 1998, p.39] Final authorization to attack was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him that the "Hull Note" would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea."[(Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2000, p.417, citing the Sugiyama memo)] By late 1941 U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on multiple occasions, with hostilities between the U.S. and Japan expected by many observers. U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target in any war with Japan, instead expecting the Philippines to be attacked first due to the threat it posed to sea lanes to the south[Noted by Arthur MacArthur in the 1890s. Manchester, William. American Caesar.] and the erroneous belief that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.[Peattie & Evans, Kaigun.]
There has been ongoing controversy due to allegations made by conspiracy theorists that some members of the Roosevelt administration had advance knowledge of the attack, and that this was purposefully ignored in order to gain public and Congressional support for the U.S. entering WWII on the side of the British Empire.[Stinnett, Robert. Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor (Free Press, 1999); Toland, John. Infamy: Pearl Harbor and Its Aftermath (Berkley, 1986).]
Approach and attack
On November 26, 1941, a Japanese fleet including a strike force of six aircraft carriers departed from northern Japan en route to a position to the north of Hawaii, intending to launch its aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor.
At 03:42 December 7[.] Hawaiian Time, hours before Japanese commanding Admiral Chuichi Nagumo began launching strike aircraft, the U.S. minesweeper USS Condor spotted a midget submarine outside the entrance to Pearl Harbour and alerted destroyer USS Ward. Ward was initially unsuccessful in locating the submarine. Hours later, Ward fired America's first shots in the Pacific theater of WWII when she attacked and sank a midget submarine, perhaps the same one, at 06:37.
Five Japanese midget submarines had been assigned to torpedo U.S. ships after the bombing started. None of these returned and only four have since been found. Of the ten sailors aboard, nine died or went missing; the only survivor Kazuo Sakamaki was captured, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war.[Sakamaki's unexpected survival was despised by many Japanese, who referred to his dead companions as "The Nine Young Gods."] A United States Naval Institute analysis of photographs from the attack conducted in 1999 indicated one of these mini-subs entered the harbor and successfully fired a torpedo into the USS West Virginia, which may have been the first shot by the attacking Japanese. The submarine's final disposition is unknown.[.]
Tactical concept
405 aircraft were planned to be used in the attacks. 360 were used for the two waves of attack and 48 served defensive combat air patrols (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave.
The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to attack whatever remained. The first wave contained the bulk of the armament needed to attack capital ships, using mostly torpedoes. The airmen were ordered to attack the highest value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers) or, if either were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). Dive bombers were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to counterattack the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over US airfields.
Before the attack two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers were sent to scout over Oahu and report on enemy fleet composition and location. Another four scouts launched from cruisers and battleships patrolled the area between the fleet and Niihau, in order to prevent the Kido Butai from being surprised by U.S. forces.[Order of Battle - Pearl Harbor - December 7, 1941]
Japanese declaration of war
While the attack ultimately took place before a formal declaration of war by the Japanese was made, Admiral Yamamoto originally stipulated that the attack should not be made until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that it considered the peace negotiations at an end.[Calvocoressi et al., The Penguin History of the Second World War, p.952] In this way the Japanese tried both to uphold the conventions of war as well as benefitting from the element of strategic surprise. Despite these intentions the attack had already begun when the 5,000-word notification was delivered. Tokyo transmitted the message to the Japanese embassy which ultimately took too long to decipher the message to deliver it in time, while US codebreakers had already deciphered the message some nine hours[Toland, Infamy.] before the Japanese embassy was scheduled to deliver it. The deciphered message did not expressly declare war, merely broke off negotiations.[Prange et al. Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History?]
First wave
The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of Oahu, commanded by Captain Mitsuo Fuchida. Six planes didn't launch because of technical difficulties.[AIRCRAFT ATTACK ORGANIZATION The Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, Planning and Execution. First wave: 189 planes, 50 Kates w/bombs, 40 Kates with torpedoes, 54 Vals, 45 Zekes Second wave: 171 planes, 54 Kates w/bombs, 81 Vals, 36 Zekes. The Combat Air Patrol over the carriers alternated 18 plane shifts every two hours with 18 more ready for takeoff on the flight decks and an additional 18 ready on hangar decks.]
 1st Group (targets: battleships and aircraft carriers)[.]
* 50 Nakajima B5N Bombers armed with 800 kg (1760 lb) armor piercing bombs, organised in four sections
* 40 B5N Bombers armed with Type 91 torpedoes, also in four sections
2nd Group — (targets: Ford Island and Wheeler Field)
* 54 Aichi D3A Dive Bombers armed with general purpose bombs
3rd Group — (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe)
* 45 Mitsubishi A6M Fighters for air control and strafing
As the first wave approached Oahu a U.S. Army SCR-270 radar at Opana Point near the island's northern tip (a post not yet operational, having been in training mode for months) detected them and called in a warning. Although the operators reported a target echo larger than anything they had ever seen, an untrained officer at the new and only partially activated Intercept Center, Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, presumed the scheduled arrival of six B-17 bombers was the source. The direction from which the aircraft were coming was close (only a few degrees separated the two inbound courses),[.] while the operators had never seen a formation as large as the U.S. bombers on radar.[.] It is also possible the operators had only seen the lead element of the incoming attack.
Several U.S. aircraft were shot down as the first wave approached land, and one at least radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. The results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked at Pearl and specific orders to commence operations before they actually struck his command.
The air portion of the attack on Pearl Harbor began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (3:18 a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai), with the attack on Kaneohe.[.] A total of 353[ Japanese planes in two waves reached Oahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Corps fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Air Corps' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only air opposition came from a handful of P-36 Hawks and P-40 Warhawks.][In the twenty-five sorties flown, USAF Historical Study No.85 credits six pilots with ten planes destroyed: 1st Lt Lewis M. Sanders (P-36) and 2nd Lts Philip M Rasmussen (P-36), Gordon H. Sterling Jr. (P-36, killed in action), Harry W. Brown (P-36), Kenneth M. Taylor (P-40, 2), and George S. Welch (P-40, 4). Three of the P-36 kills were not verified by the Japanese and may have been shot down by naval anti-aircraft fire.]
Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire prompting bleary eyed men into dressing as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill.",[Odd though it may sound, "not" is correct, in keeping with standard Navy telegraphic practice. This was confirmed by Beloite and Beloite after years of research and debate.] was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to deter sabotage,[The gunners that did get in action scored most of the victories against Japanese aircraft that morning, including the first of the attack, by Tautog, and Dorie Miller's Navy Cross-worthy effort. Miller was an African-American cook aboard West Virginia who took over an unattended anti-aircraft gun on which he had no training. He was the first African-American sailor to be awarded the Navy Cross.] Ensign Joe Taussig got his ship, USS Nevada, underway from dead cold during the attack. One of the destroyers, USS Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all Ensigns, none with more than a year's sea duty; she operated at sea for four days before her commanding officer managed to get aboard. Captain Mervyn Bennion, commanding USS West Virginia (Kimmel's flagship), led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb hit to USS Tennessee, moored alongside.
Gallantry was widespread. In all, 14 officers and sailors were awarded the Medal of Honor. A special military award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.
Second wave composition
The second wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki.[ Four planes didn't launch because of technical difficulties.]
1st Group — 54 B5Ns armed with and general purpose bombs
* 27 B5Ns — aircraft and hangars on Kaneohe, Ford Island, and Barbers Point
* 27 B5N — hangars and aircraft on Hickam Field
2nd Group (targets: aircraft carriers and cruisers)
* 81 D3As armed with general purpose bombs, in four sections
3rd Group — (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickham Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe)
*36 A6Ms for defense and strafing
The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kaneohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously, from several directions.
Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,386 Americans died (55 were civilians, most killed by unexploded American anti-aircraft shells landing in civilian areas), a further 1,139 wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk, including five battleships.
Of the American fatalities, nearly half of the total were due to the explosion of USS Arizona's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 40 cm (16in) shell.[The wreck has become a memorial to those lost that day, most of whom remain within the ship. She continues to leak small amounts of fuel oil, 65 years after the attack.]
Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire forward, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way, sustaining more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs as she was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance.
USS California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship USS Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. USS West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. USS Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. USS Maryland was hit by two of the converted 40 cm shells, but neither caused serious damage.
Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser USS Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer USS Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and so the ships were burned out. The light cruiser USS Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser USS Honolulu was damaged but remained in service. The destroyer USS Cassin capsized, and destroyer USS Downes was heavily damaged. The repair vessel USS Vestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender USS Curtiss was also damaged. USS Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.[.]
Of the 402[ American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged,][ 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down several U.S. planes on top of that, including some from an inbound flight from USS Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.]
Fifty-five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the action. Of Japan's 414[ available planes, 29 were lost during the battle][.] (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second),[USAAF pilots of the 46th and 47th Pursuit Squadrons, 15th Pursuit Group, claim to have destroyed 10.] with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.
Possible third wave
Several Japanese junior officers, including Fuchida and the chief architect of the attack, Captain Minoru Genda, urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor's fuel storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible.[.] Some military historians have suggested the destruction of these oil tanks and repair facilities would have crippled the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than loss of its battleships. If they had been wiped out, "serious  operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year."[.] Nagumo, however, decided to forgo a third attack in favor of withdrawal for several reasons:
American anti-aircraft performance had improved considerably during the second strike, and two-thirds of Japan's losses were incurred during the second wave.[.] Nagumo felt if he launched a third strike, he would be risking three-quarters of the Combined Fleet's strength to wipe out the remaining targets (which included the facilities) while suffering higher aircraft losses.
The location of the American carriers remained unknown. In addition, the Admiral was concerned his force was now within range of American land-based bombers.[ Nagumo was uncertain whether the U.S. had enough surviving planes remaining on Hawaii to launch an attack against Japan's carriers.][.]
A third wave attack would have required substantial preparation and turn-around time, and would have meant returning planes would have faced night landings. At the time, no Navy had developed night carrier techniques, so this was a substantial risk.
The task force's fuel situation did not permit him to remain in waters north of Pearl Harbor much longer since he was at the very limits of logistical support. To do so risked running unacceptably low on fuel, perhaps even having to abandon destroyers en route home.[.]
He believed the second strike had essentially satisfied the main objective of his mission — the neutralization of the Pacific Fleet — and did not wish to risk further losses.[.]
At a conference aboard Yamato the following morning, Yamamoto initially supported Nagumo's decision to withdraw.[.]
Gallery
Image:Jap Zero leaves Akagi-Pearl Harbor.jpg|A Japanese Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero" fighter airplane takes off from the aircraft carrier Akagi on the morning of December 7, 1941.
Image:Carrier shokaku.jpg|Zeroes preparing to take off from Shokaku for Pearl Harbor
Image:Jap plane leaves Shokaku-Pearl Harbor.jpg|A Japanese Nakajima B5N2 "Kate" torpedo bomber takes off from Shokaku.
Image:Jap_planes_preparing-Pearl_Harbor.jpg|A Japanese Aichi D3A1 "Val" dive bombers preparing to take off. Aircraft carrier Soryu in the background.
Image:USS California sinking-Pearl Harbor.jpg|Battleship USS California sinking
Image:Pearlharborcolork13513.jpg|Battleship USS Arizona explodes.
Image:USS SHAW exploding Pearl Harbor Nara 80-G-16871 2.jpg|Destroyer USS Shaw exploding after her forward magazine was detonated
Image:USS Nevada attempts escape from Pearl 80G32558.jpg|Battleship USS Nevada attempting to escape from the harbor.
Image:USS West Virginia;014824.jpg|Battleship USS West Virginia took two aerial bombs (one dud) and seven torpedo hits; of the seven at least five were from aircraft and one from a midget submarine
Image:NARA 28-1277a.gif|B-17 after the attack on Hickam Field.
Image:PLanes_burning-Ford_Island-Pearl_Harbor.jpg|Hangar in Ford Island burns
Image:Pearl harbour.png|Aftermath: USS West Virginia (severely damaged), USS Tennessee (damaged), and the USS Arizona (sunk).
Aftermath
Though the attack was notable for its large-scale destruction, the damage was not significant in terms of American fuel storage, maintenance and intelligence capabilities. Had Japan destroyed the American carriers, the U.S. would have sustained significant damage to the Pacific Fleet's ability to conduct offensive operations for a year or so (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to place its faith in aircraft carriers and submarines — the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief the ultimate Pacific battle would be between battleships of both sides, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Mahan. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle" that never happened.
Ultimately, targets not on Genda's list, such as the Submarine Base and the old Headquarters Building, proved more important than any battleship. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy's heavy ships and brought Japan's economy to a standstill by crippling transportation of oil and raw materials. And in the basement of the old Administration Building was the cryptanalytic unit, HYPO, which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force's success.
Salvage
After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain Homer N. Wallin, Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, had recently been given orders to Massawa and was awaiting transportation when the Japanese attack came. In Massawa, he was to have assisted the British in clearing scuttled Italian and German ships from that harbor. Instead, Wallin was immediately retained for salvage leadership in Pearl Harbor; Commander Edward Ellsberg was ordered to Massawa as his replacement, a switch that delayed by several months British hopes for a useful port in the Red Sea.[Commander Edward Ellsberg, O.B.E. Under the Red Sea Sun, (1946). Dodd, Mead and Co., New York]
Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge, and others) began work on the ships which could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl and on the mainland for extensive repair.
Intensive salvage operations continued for another year. The Utah and Arizona were too heavily damaged for salvage, though much of their armament and equipment was removed and restored for use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulls remain where they were sunk.[Post-attack ship salvage 1942-1944]
Divers logged in 20,000 hours under water with zero visibility. They worked in water with heavy oil, dangerous debris, decomposing bodies, and unexploded ordnance.[Raymer, E.C: "Descent Into Darkness", Presidio Press, 1996, ISBN 0-89141-580-0][ ]
Subsequent attack on Pearl Harbor
On March 4, 1942, two Kawanishi H8K "Emily" flying boats bombed Pearl Harbor after fueling at French Frigate Shoals. Due to poor visibility, the bombs were off target and did not accomplish any significant damage. The resulting power outage delayed salvage operations temporarily.[Raymer, E.C: "Descent Into Darkness", pages 96 - 98. Presidio Press, 1996, ISBN 0-89141-580-0]
See also
Remember Pearl Harbor
Niihau Incident
Attacks on North America during World War II
List of United States Navy losses in World War II
List of United States Navy ships present at Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941
Pearl Harbor
Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate
Pearl Harbor Survivors Association
USS Arizona Memorial
Tora! Tora! Tora!
In Defense of Internment
Bibliography
Books U.S. Government Documents Magazine articles (requires subscription) Online sources
Further reading
McCollum memo A 1940 memo from a Naval headquarters staff officer to his superiors outlining possible provocations to Japan, which might lead to war (declassified in 1994). Gordon W. Prange, At Dawn We Slept (McGraw-Hill, 1981), Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History (McGraw-Hill, 1986), and December 7, 1941: The Day the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor (McGraw-Hill, 1988). This monumental trilogy, written with collaborators Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, is considered the authoritative work on the subject. Larry Kimmett and Margaret Regis, The Attack on Pearl Harbor: An Illustrated History (NavPublishing, 2004). Using maps, photos, unique illustrations, and an animated CD, this book provides a detailed overview of the surprise attack that brought the United States into World War II. Walter Lord, Day of Infamy (Henry Holt, 1957) is a very readable, and entirely anecdotal, re-telling of the day's events. W. J. Holmes, Double-Edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific During World War II (Naval Institute, 1979) contains some important material, such as Holmes' argument that, had the U.S. Navy been warned of the attack and put to sea, it would have likely resulted in an even greater disaster. Michael V. Gannon, Pearl Harbor Betrayed (Henry Holt, 2001) is a recent examination of the issues surrounding the surprise of the attack. Frederick D. Parker, Pearl Harbor Revisited: United States Navy Communications Intelligence 1924–1941 (Center for Cryptologic History, 1994) contains a detailed description of what the Navy knew from intercepted and decrypted Japan's communications prior to Pearl. Henry C. Clausen and Bruce Lee, Pearl Harbor: Final Judgment, (HarperCollins, 2001), an account of the secret " Clausen Inquiry" undertaken late in the war by order of Congress to Secretary of War Stimson. Robert A. Theobald, Final Secret of Pearl Harbor (Devin-Adair Pub, 1954) ISBN 0-8159-5503-0 ISBN 0-317-65928-6 Foreword by Fleet Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr. Albert C. Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports! (Henry Holt Co, 1958) ISBN 0-89275-011-1 ISBN 0-8159-7216-4 Hamilton Fish, Tragic Deception: FDR and America's Involvement in World War II (Devin-Adair Pub, 1983) ISBN 0-8159-6917-1 John Toland, Infamy: Pearl Harbor and Its Aftermath (Berkley Reissue edition, 1986 ISBN 0-425-09040-X) is an excellent account by a Pulitzer Prize winning author, though thought by some not to back up his claims as thoroughly as expected by academic conventions. Robert Stinnett, Day of Deceit: The Truth About FDR and Pearl Harbor (Free Press, 1999) A study of the Freedom of Information Act documents that led Congress to direct clearance of Kimmel and Short. ISBN 0-7432-0129-9 Edward L. Beach, Scapegoats: A Defense of Kimmel and Short at Pearl HarborISBN 1-55750-059-2 Andrew Krepinevich, (Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments) contains a passage regarding the Yarnell attack, as well as reference citations. Roberta Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision, (Stanford University Press: 1962). Regarded by many as the most important work in the attempt to understand the intelligence failure at Pearl Harbor. Her introduction and analysis of the concept of "noise" persists in understanding intelligence failures. John Hughes-Wilson, Military Intelligence Blunders and Cover-Ups. Robinson, 1999 (revised 2004). Contains a brief but insightful chapter on the particular intelligence failures, and broader overview of what causes them. Seki, Eiji. (2006). Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940. London: Global Oriental. 10-ISBN 1-905-24628-5; 13- ISBN 978-1-905-24628-1 (cloth) Reprinted by University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2007. Previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation. Daniel Madsen, Resurrection-Salvaging the Battle Fleet at Pearl Harbor. U.S. Naval Institute Press. 2003. Highly readable and thoroughly researched account of the aftermath of the attack and the salvage efforts from December 8, 1941 through early 1944.
External links
"Remembering Pearl Harbor:The USS Arizona Memorial", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
Accounts
Guarding The United States And Its Outposts Official U.S. Army history of Pearl Harbor
War comes to Hawaii Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Monday, September 13, 1999
Media
Video of first Newsreel from December 23, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor
Historic documents
WW2DB: US Navy Report of Japanese Raid on Pearl Harbor
Second World War — USA Declaration of War on Japan.
Collection of extensive Japanese preparation military documents
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